Young Adult Athletes Research Articles

The Holistic Athletic Healthcare Model: Addressing the Developmental, Social, and Cultural Needs of Collegiate Athletes

Many adolescent and young adult athletes only access the healthcare system through involvement in sports. Yet, many opportunities are missed in the sports medicine environment to provide holistic, quality care for these athletes that assists them in navigating to healthy adults and addresses inequities that impair good health. Since most causes of morbidity and mortality in this age group are related to poor health behaviors, and comprehensive health care services are fragmented, it is imperative that sports medicine healthcare be reimagined to incorporate a social-ecological perspective that holistically addresses the unique medical, social, cultural, and behavioral needs of athletes. We propose a social-ecological perspective that enhances developmental assets as the basis for sports medicine services. This innovative approach - the Holistic Athletic Healthcare Model - involves 1) addressing adolescent developmental needs and the social determinants of health at the individual level, 2) using strength-based approaches and demonstrating cultural competency in health provider relationships, 3) integrating medical care with campus community services, and 4) promoting health equity in the campus environment. Engagement in sports has many benefits beyond winning in the game, and health is more than being injury-free. Sports medicine practitioners and healthcare systems must be proactive in supporting athletes from all backgrounds to become healthy adults.

PREVALENCE OF ECG ABNORMALITIES IN ADOLESCENTS UNDERGOING COMMUNITY BASED HEALTH SCREENING

Recent guidelines recommend using the International ECG Criteria for screening of young adult athletes. Limited data exists on the prevalence of abnormal ECG (AbnECG) utilizing these criteria in adolescents with different activity levels and ethnic backgrounds. Community based screening was

Rapid Number Naming and Quantitative Eye Movements May Reflect Contact Sport Exposure in a Collegiate Ice Hockey Cohort.

The King-Devick (K-D) test of rapid number naming is a reliable visual performance measure that is a sensitive sideline indicator of concussion when time scores worsen (lengthen) from preseason baseline. Within cohorts of youth athletes <18 years old, baseline K-D times become faster with increasing age. We determined the relation of rapid number-naming time scores on the K-D test to electronic measurements of saccade performance during preseason baseline assessments in a collegiate ice hockey team cohort. Within this group of young adult athletes, we also sought to examine the potential role for player age in determining baseline scores. Athletes from a collegiate ice hockey team received preseason baseline testing as part of an ongoing study of rapid rink-side performance measures for concussion. These included the K-D test (spiral-bound cards and tablet computer versions). Participants also performed a laboratory-based version of the K-D test with simultaneous infrared-based video-oculographic recordings using an EyeLink 1000+. This allowed measurement of the temporal and spatial characteristics of eye movements, including saccadic velocity, duration, and intersaccadic interval (ISI). Among 13 male athletes, aged 18-23 years (mean 20.5 ± 1.6 years), prolongation of the ISI (a combined measure of saccade latency and fixation duration) was the measure most associated with slower baseline time scores for the EyeLink-paired K-D (mean 38.2 ± 6.2 seconds, r = 0.88 [95% CI 0.63-0.96], P = 0.0001), the K-D spiral-bound cards (36.6 ± 5.9 seconds, r = 0.60 [95% CI 0.08-0.87], P = 0.03), and K-D computerized tablet version (39.1 ± 5.4 seconds, r = 0.79 [95% CI 0.42-0.93], P = 0.001). In this cohort, older age was a predictor of longer (worse) K-D baseline time performance (age vs EyeLink-paired K-D: r = 0.70 [95% CI 0.24-0.90], P = 0.008; age vs K-D spiral-bound cards: r = 0.57 [95% CI 0.03-0.85], P = 0.04; age vs K-D tablet version: r = 0.59 [95% CI 0.06-0.86], P = 0.03) as well as prolonged ISI (r = 0.62 [95% CI 0.11-0.87], P = 0.02). Slower baseline K-D times were not associated with greater numbers of reported prior concussions. Rapid number-naming performance using the K-D at preseason baseline in this small cohort of collegiate ice hockey players is best correlated with ISI among eye movement-recording measures. Baseline K-D scores notably worsened with increasing age, but not with numbers of prior concussions in this small cohort. While these findings require further investigation by larger studies of contact and noncontact sports athletes, they suggest that duration of contact sports exposure may influence preseason test performance.

Neurocognitive Deficits Associated With ADHD in Athletes: A Systematic Review.

Context:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common childhood disorder and is frequently diagnosed in young adults. Emerging studies suggest a relationship between ADHD and concussion.Objective:To determine whether athletes with ADHD are at increased risk for neurocognitive deficits related to concussion risk, symptom reporting, and recovery.Data Sources:A comprehensive search of PubMed, CINAHL, PsychInfo, and Cochrane Library databases was performed. Studies conducted between 2006 and 2017 were reviewed, although only those between 2013 and 2017 met inclusion criteria.Study Selection:Studies that examined neurocognitive deficits in adolescent and young adult athletes aged 15 to 19 years who had ADHD and reported using notable neuropsychological evaluation tools were included.Study Design:Systematic review.Level of Evidence:Level 2.Results:A total of 17 studies met the inclusion criteria. The prevalence of ADHD in athletes varied between 4.2% and 8.1%. Overall, athletes with ADHD demonstrated lower scores on neurocognitive testing such as the ImPACT (Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test), increased risk for concussion, and increased symptom reporting. There was no evidence that treatment with stimulant medication changed these risks.Conclusion:ADHD is associated with increased neurocognitive deficits in athletes, although pathophysiology remains unclear. Evidence for stimulant treatment in athletes with ADHD continues to be sparse.

Acute exhaustive rowing exercise reduces skin microvascular dilator function in young adult rowing athletes.

The effect of acute exhaustive exercise session on skin microvascular reactivity was assessed in professional rowers and sedentary subjects. A potential involvement of altered hemodynamic parameters and/or oxidative stress level in the regulation of skin microvascular blood flow by acute exercise were determined. Anthropometric, biochemical, and hemodynamic parameters were measured in 18 young healthy sedentary men and 20 professional rowers who underwent a single acute exercise session. Post-occlusive reactive hyperemia (PORH), endothelium-dependent acetylcholine (ACh), and endothelium-independent sodium nitroprusside (SNP) microvascular responses were assessed by laser Doppler flowmetry in skin microcirculation before and after acute exercise. Serum lipid peroxidation products and plasma antioxidant capacity were measured using spectrophotometry. At baseline, rowers had significantly lower diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and heart rate (HR), and higher stroke volume (SV), PORH, and endothelium-dependent vasodilation than sedentary. Acute exercise caused a significant increase in systolic blood pressure, DBP, HR, and SV and a decrease in total peripheral resistance in both groups. Acute exercise induced a significant impairment in PORH and ACh-induced response in rowers, but not in sedentary, whereas the SNP-induced vasodilation was not affected by acute exercise in any group. Antioxidant capacity significantly increased only in sedentary after acute exercise. Single acute exercise session impaired microvascular reactivity and endothelial function in rowers but not in sedentary, possibly due to (1) more rowing grades and higher exercise intensity achieved by rowers; (2) a higher increase in arterial pressure in rowers than in sedentary men; and (3) a lower antioxidant capacity in rowers.

Evaluating the psychometric properties of the Social Identity Questionnaire for Sport (SIQS)

ObjectivesThe strength with which individuals identify with a sport team (i.e., social identity) has important implications for athletes' cognitions, affect, and behavior. Yet there remains ambiguity surrounding the optimal way to conceptualize and thus assess social identity. The purpose of the current study was to examine the psychometric properties of a nine-item version of the Social Identity Questionnaire for Sport (SIQS). DesignAthletes completed a self-report measure of social identity related to sport team involvement. MethodIn a sample of 869 youth and young adult athletes (Mage = 14.84, SD = 3.79; male = 375; female = 493), we evaluated the psychometric properties of a nine-item version of the Social Identity Questionnaire for Sport (SIQS) by using bifactor analysis and subsequently testing single-factor and three-factor structures. ResultsOverall, a theoretically conceived three-factor structure is empirically supported, where ingroup ties, cognitive centrality, and ingroup affect are represented as distinct dimensions of social identity. Empirical support was also found for a global factor of social identity, but only when the residuals among the subscales were correlated. There was support for strong measurement invariance across sexes for the unidimensional and three-factor structure models. DiscussionThe findings from the study support the SIQS as a psychometrically sound measure of social identity in sport that can be used to either model social identity along three specific dimensions or as a global construct.

Operative treatment of pelvic apophyseal avulsions in adolescent and young adult athletes: a follow-up study.

Pelvic apophyseal avulsion can limit young athletes' performance for months and may result in permanent disability. Nonoperative treatment is most commonly preferred, while surgical management with reduction and fixation is reserved for selected cases. Our aim was to evaluate outcomes of operative management of pelvic apophyseal avulsions in a series of adolescents and young adult athletes. Operative room registries and medical records were reviewed to identify patients who received surgical treatment for pelvic apophyseal avulsions who were younger than 24years and with a minimum of 12month follow-up. Thirty-two patients (16.8years±2.6) were identified. The most common avulsion sites were anterior inferior iliac spine (34.4%, N=11) and ischial tuberosity (34.4%, N=11). Other avulsions were five cases (15.6%) of the pubic apophysis, four cases (12.5%) of the anterior superior iliac spine apophysis and one case of the iliac crest apophysis. Seventeen cases (53.1%) underwent surgery early, i.e., during the first 3months after the acute injury. Twenty-two cases (68.8%) involved reduction with internal fixation, and six cases (18.8%) involved resection of the fragment. Twenty-six athletes (81.3%, N=26) reported good outcomes and were able to return to preinjury sports level. Six patients (18.8%) had moderate outcome and reported activity limitations during high-level sports. Large displacement (>20mm) or delayed (>3months) surgery was not associated with inferior outcomes (P=0.690 and P=0.392, respectively). Injury side (P=0.61) or gender (P=0.345) did not affect outcomes. Operative management of pelvic apophyseal avulsion results in return to the preinjury sports level in more than 80% of the cases. However, while both acute surgery for large displacement and delayed intervention for failed nonoperative treatment are generally successful in improving sports function in these cases, comparative studies are required to refine criteria for surgery. Case series, IV.

The Use of Hamstring Fatigue to Reduce Quadriceps Inhibition After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction.

Arthrogenic muscle inhibition, an inability to fully activate the quadriceps muscles, has been persistently observed after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLr) surgery. Reductions in quadriceps activation may be partly due to the flexion reflex pathway, hamstrings activation, and reciprocal quadriceps inhibition. Since central fatigue has been shown to modify hamstring excitability and change the hamstring reflex response, hamstring fatigue might alleviate quadriceps muscle inhibition by counteracting the flexion reflex. In this study, nine young adult athletes (age: M = 19.9 years, SD = 1.7) with unilateral ACLr and nine control athletes (age: M = 24.0 years, SD = 2.4) with no previous history of knee injury performed tempo squats to induce fatigue. The ACLr group tended to use hamstrings for more hip flexion and trunk forward flexion than the control group. We assessed each participant's quadriceps inhibition through the central activation ratio (CAR), measured by twitch interpolation, before and after the induced fatigue. A mixed analysis of variance was used to examine the effect of fatigue on the CAR between pre- and post-fatigue and for both ACLr and control groups. The ACLr group showed significantly ( p = .010) greater CAR of the quadriceps post-fatigue ( M = 96.0%, SD = 7.6%) than pre-fatigue ( M = 81.2%, SD = 15.8%), while the control group showed no significant ( p = .969) pre-fatigue ( M = 96.9%, SD = 9.6%) and post-fatigue ( M = 97.0%, SD = 17.1%) differences. Thus, fatigue training may be used as a rehabilitation strategy to restore normal quadriceps function at the knee joint following ACL reconstruction by relaxing the hamstrings and overcoming quadriceps inhibition.

The Effect of Pretest Exercise on Baseline Computerized Neurocognitive Test Scores.

Background:Baseline neurocognitive assessment plays a critical role in return-to-play decision making following sport-related concussions. Prior studies have assessed the effect of a variety of modifying factors on neurocognitive baseline test scores. However, relatively little investigation has been conducted regarding the effect of pretest exercise on baseline testing.Purpose/Hypothesis:The aim of our investigation was to determine the effect of pretest exercise on baseline Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT) scores in adolescent and young adult athletes. We hypothesized that athletes undergoing self-reported strenuous exercise within 3 hours of baseline testing would perform more poorly on neurocognitive metrics and would report a greater number of symptoms than those who had not completed such exercise.Study Design:Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.Methods:The ImPACT records of 18,245 adolescent and young adult athletes were retrospectively analyzed. After application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, participants were dichotomized into groups based on a positive (n = 664) or negative (n = 6609) self-reported history of strenuous exercise within 3 hours of the baseline test. Participants with a positive history of exercise were then randomly matched, based on age, sex, education level, concussion history, and hours of sleep prior to testing, on a 1:2 basis with individuals who had reported no pretest exercise. The baseline ImPACT composite scores of the 2 groups were then compared.Results:Significant differences were observed for the ImPACT composite scores of verbal memory, visual memory, reaction time, and impulse control as well as for the total symptom score. No significant between-group difference was detected for the visual motor composite score. Furthermore, pretest exercise was associated with a significant increase in the overall frequency of invalid test results.Conclusion:Our results suggest a statistically significant difference in ImPACT composite scores between individuals who report strenuous exercise prior to baseline testing compared with those who do not. Since return-to-play decision making often involves documentation of return to neurocognitive baseline, the baseline test scores must be valid and accurate. As a result, we recommend standardization of baseline testing such that no strenuous exercise takes place 3 hours prior to test administration.

Self-reported history of seizure and baseline neurocognitive test performance in student-athletes: an initial investigation

ABSTRACTObjectives: Baseline neurocognitive assessment data can be critical in return to play (RTP) decision-making following a sport-related concussion (SRC). The literature indicates that many modifying factors of SRC have been studied empirically; however, there has been little investigation into the effect of a self-reported history of seizure(s) on baseline neurocognitive test data. The objective of this investigation was to determine whether a self-reported history of seizure(s) is associated with differences in baseline Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT) performance.Methods: A retrospective analysis of 18,245 adolescent and young adult athletes’ ImPACT scores was performed. After application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, 7,391 participants were dichotomized into groups based on the presence or absence of a self-reported history of seizure. Participants reporting a history of seizure (n = 60) were matched on multiple variables in a 1:3 ratio with controls (n = 180) without a history of self-reported seizure. Baseline ImPACT composite scores were then compared between groups using either a 2-tailed t-test or a Mann-Whitney U-Test.Results: A significant between-group difference was observed in ImPACT visual motor speed composite scores (35.28 vs. 37.64, p = 0.029, Hedge’s g = 0.327), with the group self-reporting a history of seizure performing at inferior average scores. No significant between-group differences were detected in verbal memory, visual memory, reaction time, impulse control, or total symptom scores.Conclusion: Athletes with a history of self-reported seizure scored significantly lower on ImPACT visual motor speed compared to matched controls. As a solitary finding with a small effect size, the clinical significance of this difference is unclear. Apart from the decrease in visual-motor speed, this preliminary analysis suggests that athletes with a history of seizure might not have significantly different neurocognitive baseline test scores when compared with matched controls. Further empirical investigation is warranted to determine if a history of seizure is a modifying factor for SRC.

Assessment of the Postural Stability of Female and Male Athletes

Postural stability is often affected by sport-related injuries and subsequently evaluated during postinjury examinations. Intrinsic factors, however, may also affect postural control. We sought to compare the postural control of female and male athletes as measured simultaneously by (1) the modified balance error scoring system (mBESS) and (2) a video-force plate system. Cross-sectional study. Sports injury prevention center. Pediatric, adolescent, and young adult athletes who performed mBESS during an injury prevention evaluation. We compared the postural control of female and male athletes. We also accounted for independent variables associated with postural stability, including age, body mass index, and history of ankle injury, concussion, and migraine headache. Total errors committed during the mBESS and measurements derived from integrated kinematic and kinetic data obtained by a video-force plate system. Differences between males and females were tested using analysis of covariance. Participants (n = 409) ranged in age from 10 to 29 years (mean = 14.6 ± 2.8); 60% were female. No significant differences on mBESS were detected between females and males; however, female athletes demonstrated significantly better postural stability on the video-force plate analysis during double-leg (P = 0.03, d = 0.28), single-leg (P < 0.001, d = 0.62), and tandem stances (P < 0.001, d = 0.53) when compared with males. Uninjured female athletes demonstrate better postural stability on video-force plate analysis than their uninjured male counterparts. These findings provide an important information assistive to clinicians during interpretation of postinjury balance tests.

Bony Morphology of Femoroacetabular Impingement in Young Female Dancers and Single-Sport Athletes.

Background:Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) is a painful and limiting condition of the hip that is often seen in young athletes. Previous studies have reported a higher prevalence of this disorder in male athletes, but data on the structural morphology of adolescent and young adult female athletes, specifically those involved in dance, are lacking.Purpose:(1) To investigate the radiographic morphology of FAI deformities in adolescent and young adult female single-sport dance and nondance athletes and (2) to examine the differences in the radiographic findings between these 2 groups.Study Design:Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.Methods:A retrospective chart review of 56 female single-sport athletes 10 to 21 years of age with a diagnosis of FAI within a single-sports medicine division of a pediatric academic medical center was performed. Acetabular index (AI), lateral center-edge angle (LCEA), crossover sign, and ischial spine sign were measured bilaterally on anteroposterior radiographs; alpha angle (AA) was measured on lateral films, and anterior center-edge angle (ACEA) was measured on false-profile films. Independent t tests and Mann-Whitney U tests were used to compare mean angle measurements between dance and nondance athletes. Dichotomized categorical variables and crossover and ischial spine signs were analyzed between dance and nondance athletes by applying a chi-square test. Statistical significance was set as P < .05 a priori.Results:Significant differences in angle measurements were noted. AA was significantly lower in the dancers compared with the nondance athlete group (49.5° ± 6.0° vs 53.9° ± 7.3°, P = .001). The LCEA and ACEA of dance athletes were significantly greater compared with nondance athletes (33.8° ± 6.7° vs 30.9° ± 5.8° [P = .016] and 36.0° ± 8.1° vs 32.3° ± 7.0° [P = .035], respectively). No significant difference in AI was seen between the 2 cohorts (5.0° ± 4.0° for dancers vs 5.9° ± 3.4° for nondancers, P = .195).Conclusion:Significant differences existed in the radiographic bony morphology of young female single-sport dance athletes compared with nondance athletes with FAI. In dance athletes, symptoms were seen in the setting of normal bony morphology.

User Survey of 3 Ankle Braces in Soccer, Volleyball, and Running: Which Brace Fits Best?

Recurrence rates for ankle sprains are high. Therefore, preventive measures such as ankle bracing during sports are recommended. To systematically evaluate the perceived ease of use, quality, comfort, stability, and hindrance of and the overall satisfaction with 3 contemporary brace types in 3 types of sports. Randomized comparative user survey. Recreational sports: soccer, volleyball, and running. Young adult recreational athletes (29 soccer players, 26 volleyball players, and 31 runners). Compression brace (CB), lace-up brace (LB), and semirigid brace (SB). Rating of perceived ease of use, quality, comfort, stability, and hindrance of and overall satisfaction with the brace types during sports on a 5-point Likert scale. The secondary outcome measure was participants' willingness to buy the tested brace. Overall, the 3 brace types received high mean scores for ease of use and quality. Soccer players preferred the CB over both alternatives, considering the higher scores for comfort (CB = 4.0, LB = 3.5, SB = 2.8), hindrance (CB = 3.7, LB = 2.9, SB = 2.8), overall satisfaction (CB = 3.6, LB = 3.0, SB = 2.5), and greatest willingness to buy this brace. Volleyball players preferred the LB over both alternatives, considering the higher scores for stability (LB = 4.2, CB = 3.2, SB = 3.3), overall satisfaction (LB = 3.8, CB = 3.0, SB = 3.0), and greatest willingness to buy this brace. Runners preferred the CB over both alternatives considering the better score for hindrance (CB = 3.6, LB = 2.8, SB = 2.9) and greatest willingness to buy this brace. All 3 ankle-brace types scored high on perceived ease of use and quality. Regarding the brace types, soccer players, volleyball players, and runners differed in their assessments of subjective evaluation of comfort, stability, hindrance, overall satisfaction, and willingness to buy the brace. Soccer players and runners preferred the CB, whereas volleyball players preferred the LB.

Posttraumatic Headache in Concussed Young Adult Athletes

Posttraumatic Headache in Concussed Young Adult Athletes

The effects of aerobic and anaerobic exercises on circulating soluble-Klotho and IGF-I in young and elderly adults and in CAD patients.

Different studies support the notion that chronic aerobic exercises training can influence the circulating levels of soluble-Klotho (s-Klotho) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I). The effects of s-Klotho include improving the quality of life, alleviating the negative impact of age on the body’s work capacity, and possibly increasing longevity. This review provides an overview of the latest findings in this field of research in humans. The different modes of dynamic exercise and their impact on circulating levels of s-Klotho and IGF-I in young adult athletes, untrained young adults, trained healthy older adults, untrained healthy older adults, and coronary artery disease (CAD) patients are reviewed and discussed. Together these findings suggest that long-lasting (chronic) aerobic exercise training is probably one of the antiaging factors that counteract the aging and CAD process by increasing the circulating s-Klotho and lowering the IGF-I levels. However, following anaerobic exercise training the opposite occurs. The exact metabolic and physiological pathways involved in the activity of these well-trained young and master sportsmen should be further studied and elucidated. The purpose of this review was to provide a clarification regarding the roles of s-Klotho and intensities and durations of different exercise on human health.

Doping in sport: Do parents matter?

Athletes exist and function in an environment of complex relationships; however, little is known about the influence of particular relationships for athletes’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviors towards doping in sport. Among adolescent and young adult athlete populations, parents and coaches have been highlighted as particularly influential, but when and how they influence athletes in this context is unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the role of significant others in this domain. Design: Cross-sectional qualitative methodology. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 British (M = 8) track and field student-athletes. Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the transcripts. Results: Prominently, the parent-athlete relationship influenced athletes’ lives in and beyond sport. Parents shape(d) athletes’ personal morals by establishing their initial sense of right and wrong. In turn, this appears to guide athletes’ decision-making and behaviors even after leaving the family home. Additionally, parents impacted the trajectory of participants’ athletic careers and their approach toward sport in general. Ensuing from this, participants exhibit a desire to give back to their parents. Cumulatively, the parent-athlete relationship (in)directly deters athletes from doping. Conclusion: Given the enduring significance of the parent-athlete relationship for shaping athletes’ attitudes, experiences and behaviors towards doping, parents should be prioritized with targeted anti-doping education. Specifically, parents should be provided with doping knowledge (e.g., risks, warning signs, consequences), and then equipped and empowered to transmit this information to athletes. Such an approach has the potential to simultaneously increase the engagement of parents and athletes in anti-doping efforts and education.

Differences in Resting State Functional Connectivity between Young Adult Endurance Athletes and Healthy Controls.

Expertise and training in fine motor skills has been associated with changes in brain structure, function, and connectivity. Fewer studies have explored the neural effects of athletic activities that do not seem to rely on precise fine motor control (e.g., distance running). Here, we compared resting-state functional connectivity in a sample of adult male collegiate distance runners (n = 11; age = 21.3 ± 2.5) and a group of healthy age-matched non-athlete male controls (n = 11; age = 20.6 ± 1.1), to test the hypothesis that expertise in sustained aerobic motor behaviors affects resting state functional connectivity in young adults. Although generally considered an automated repetitive task, locomotion, especially at an elite level, likely engages multiple cognitive actions including planning, inhibition, monitoring, attentional switching and multi-tasking, and motor control. Here, we examined connectivity in three resting-state networks that link such executive functions with motor control: the default mode network (DMN), the frontoparietal network (FPN), and the motor network (MN). We found two key patterns of significant between-group differences in connectivity that are consistent with the hypothesized cognitive demands of elite endurance running. First, enhanced connectivity between the FPN and brain regions often associated with aspects of working memory and other executive functions (frontal cortex), suggest endurance running may stress executive cognitive functions in ways that increase connectivity in associated networks. Second, we found significant anti-correlations between the DMN and regions associated with motor control (paracentral area), somatosensory functions (post-central region), and visual association abilities (occipital cortex). DMN deactivation with task-positive regions has been shown to be generally beneficial for cognitive performance, suggesting anti-correlated regions observed here are engaged during running. For all between-group differences, there were significant associations between connectivity, self-reported physical activity, and estimates of maximum aerobic capacity, suggesting a dose-response relationship between engagement in endurance running and connectivity strength. Together these results suggest that differences in experience with endurance running are associated with differences in functional brain connectivity. High intensity aerobic activity that requires sustained, repetitive locomotor and navigational skills may stress cognitive domains in ways that lead to altered brain connectivity, which in turn has implications for understanding the beneficial role of exercise for brain and cognitive function over the lifespan.

The Effects of Static Versus Dynamic Stretching on Average Power in the Young-Adult Athletic Population

Study design:Single-blind randomized study. Objectives:The purpose of the current study was to compare the effects of static and dynamic stretching in the young-adult athletic population in terms of average knee extensor and flexor muscle power. Background:Stretching prior to exercise is a common practice for many athletic persons, in which varying protocols frequently including static or dynamic stretches. Literature has shown deficits in muscle performance lasting up to one hour as a result of performing static stretching directly prior to activity; alternatively, dynamic stretching has been found to induce positive effects. Method:Forty young-adult athletes were systematically assigned to static or dynamic stretching groups and performed their respective quadriceps and hamstrings stretches according to their group assignment protocols. Pre-test and post-test measurements of hamstrings and quadriceps average power (Watts) at 60?/sec and 180?/sec were obtained using a Biodex Isokinetic Dynamometer. Results:A mixed design ANOVA showed that there was a significant main effect for stretching type and time (pre-stretch, post-stretch) for dynamic stretching in knee flexor and extensor average power at 60?/sec (p 0.05). Conclusion:Dynamic stretching exercises in the form of straight leg kicks and butt kicks may increase quadriceps and hamstring muscle performance at “strength speed” in terms of average power and may be beneficial to young-adult athletes when performed prior to activity.

Development and Initial Validation of the Performance Perfectionism Scale for Sport (PPS-S)

Valid and reliable instruments are required to appropriately study perfectionism. With this in mind, three studies are presented that describe the development and initial validation of a new instrument designed to measure multidimensional performance perfectionism for use in sport (Performance Perfectionism Scale–Sport [PPS-S]). The instrument is based on Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) model of perfectionism and includes self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented performance perfectionism. These dimensions encapsulate the features of Hewitt and Flett’s dimensions but are focused on athletic performance rather than life generally. The three studies outline item generation and refinement, exploratory, confirmatory, and exploratory-confirmatory examination of factor structure, and initial assessment of construct validity in multiple samples of adolescent and young adult athletes. Findings suggest that the PPS-S is likely to be a reliable and valid measure of performance perfectionism in youth sport. As validation continues, we expect the instrument to have wider applicability for use in adults and other performance contexts (e.g., education and work).

Deficits in Sagittal and Frontal Plane Mechanics during Drop Jump in Young Athletes with Recent Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction

Objectives:While the vertical drop jump (VDJ) is an established predictor of ACL injury risk, most studies have focused on frontal and transverse plane assessment in young adult athletes. This study assessed sagittal as well as frontal plane biomechanics during VDJ in adolescent athletes following recent anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR).Methods:29 limbs with unilateral ACLR (69% female, mean age 15.8 ± 1.6 years, 5 to 12 months post-surgery), 29 contralateral non-operative limbs, and 19 control limbs (53% female, mean age of 15.5 ± 1.8 years) were evaluated during VDJ. Lower extremity three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic data from initial contact to peak knee flexion were compared among groups using analysis of variance with Bonferroni post-hoc tests.Results:The operative limbs had significantly lower peak ground reaction forces (GRF) than both control and contralateral limbs (ACLR: 1.7 body weights (BW), Contralateral: 2.1 BW, Control: 2.1 BW; p≤0.01) along with lower average external knee flexion moments (ACLR: 0.7Nm/kg, Contralateral: 0.9Nm/kg, Control: 1.1Nm/kg; p≤0.05) and reduced power absorption at the knee (ACLR: 0.9Nm/kg, Contralateral: 1.5Nm/kg, Control: 1.2Nm/kg; p≤0.01). Operative limbs had lower peak knee flexion (ACLR: 96.8°; Contralateral: 100.7°; p=0.001) and knee flexion excursion (ACLR: 75.0°, Contralateral: 82.5°; p=0.003) than contralateral limbs, but did not differ from controls in these measures. Both operative and non-operative limbs had greater peak hip flexion (ACLR: 98.9°, Contralateral: 99.8°, Control: 83.5°; p≤0.006), hip flexion excursion (ACLR: 60.8°, Contralateral: 65.6°, Control: 49.6°; p=), and power absorption at the hip (ACLR: 1.0Nm/kg, Contralateral: 1.2Nm/kg, Control: 0.7Nm/kg; p<0.03) compared with controls. In the coronal plane, both the operative and non-operative limbs demonstrated higher peak knee valgus moments compared to controls (ACLR: 0.5Nm/kg, Contralateral: 0.4Nm/kg, Control: 0.2Nm/kg; p≤0.02) and utilized less hip ab/adduction range (ACLR: 1.7°, Contralateral: 1.9°, Control: 6.1°; p≤0.003) though there were no differences in knee valgus angles (p≥0.31) or excursion (p≥0.52).Conclusion:Lower GRF and less energy absorbed at the knee during VDJ suggests a landing strategy that shifts loading from the post-surgical knee to the hip and contralateral limb. The frontal plane knee deficits in both the operative and non-operative limbs may place the limb at an elevated risk for future injury or re-injury. Avoidance of loading the reconstructed knee and residual deficits in frontal plane hip and knee control on either limb may indicate lack of readiness to return to full activity after recent ACLR.