York Dairy Farms Research Articles

Nitrate Content of Well Water on Central New York Dairy Farms

ABSTRACT There is limited information regarding the levels of nitrate in rural New York well water. Previous studies have generally focused upon one-time samples in a limited number of localized regions. This study explores the feasibility of ongoing monitoring of nitrate levels using an inexpensive semiquantitative method to determine seasonal variations in well water nitrate levels. Weekly samples of well water were tested with a simplified protocol using a semiquantita-tive colorimetric kit by junior and senior high school students living on or around dairy farms in Otsego and Herkimer Counties, NY. Every tenth specimen was also submitted to a certified reference laboratory for comparison. We reviewed topographic and soil maps for all participating farms as well as well depth and distance to fields. Farmers reported monthly on deposition of various nitrogen sources on each of the fields. Data was analyzed using Spearman correlation and linear regression. A total of 638 semiquantitative and 67 quantitative specimens from 23 farms were available for comparison. A total of 6.5% of levels were > 10 ppm nitrate. The correlation for the two methods was 0.93. The cost of the semiquantitative testing was 4% of that of similar laboratory testing. There was no significant seasonal variation in well water nitrate levels. Statistical analysis showed an indirect correlation between water nitrate levels and well depth. We conclude that elevated nitrate levels are not common on central New York dairy farms. There is little seasonal variation of nitrate levels which seem to correlate inversely with well depth. More importantly, we found that the use of semiquantitative kits can substantially increase the accessibility of water testing in farm communities as it is inexpensive and with minimal training can give quite accurate results.

Productivity of New York Dairy Farms Measured by Nonparametric Malmquist Indices

The productivity of 70 individual New York dairy farms, decomposed into technical efficiency change and technological change components, was measured annually from 1985 to 1993 from output distance functions estimated using nonparametric programming methods. Technology is measured regressively only if it is regressive to all previous periods rather than just the immediate previous period. Productivity increase averaged 2.6 per cent annually, mostly from gains in technological improvements, since average efficiency decreased slightly. Twenty‐five per cent of the farms failed to increase productivity sufficiently over the period to offset the decreased ratio of output to input prices.

Cost of Production for Stanchion Versus Parlor Milking in New York

Curves describing the unit cost of production by herdsize were estimated separately for stanchion and parlor milking systems using empirical data for 1995 from 403 New York dairy farms. The least cost size for stanchion barns was 120 cows, for which the total cost of producing a hundredweight of milk was $13.86, or $1.00 less than the cost of producing milk using a parlor system with 120 cows. With more than 160 cows, milk was produced at a lower cost using a parlor rather than a stanchion system. Parlors have a minimum cost that is about $2.00 less than the minimum cost of the stanchion barns.

Economic analysis of generic milk advertising impacts on markets in New York State

This article examines the responsiveness of fluid milk sales to generic milk advertising in New York City, Albany, Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo markets. Fluid milk demand equations for New York City, Albany, Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo are estimated with monthly data for the period from January 1986 through June 1995. The results indicate that generic milk advertising is positive and statistically significant at the 10% significance level in each market. The highest advertising elasticity is in the Buffalo market, while the lowest is in Albany. The results also indicate that blend prices in the two New York milk marketing orders increased by 5.94 and 8.05 cents per cwt due to advertising, on average; while farmers invested 3.89 and 4.87 cents per cwt (in 1986 dollars) in fluid milk advertising for each market. A major policy implication is that New York dairy farmers should consider some reallocation of advertising expenditures among markets. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Empirical Impact of Bovine Somatotropin on New York Dairy Farms

Data from 259 farms that participated in the Cornell University Dairy Farm Business Summary Project were used to measure the impact of bovine somatotropin (bST) on milk production and profitability per cow. Linear regression was used to estimate the response to bST when other variables were held constant. Bovine somatotropin was a dummy variable for bST use or nonuse in the equations. For farms that used bST on 25% or more of the cow days in 1994, milk production increased by 510kg per cow. Returns above purchased feed costs increased $153 per cow for farms that used bST. Milk receipts over operating costs increased $120 per cow for farms that used bST. The use of bST was estimated to increase net farm income by $27 per cow, but this estimated coefficient was not statistically different from 0. Differences in costs for labor or veterinary services per cow were not significantly different between farms that used bST and farms that did not use bST.

Beauveria bassianaand Sawdust Bedding for the Management of the House Fly,Musca domestica(Diptera: Muscidae) in Calf Hutches

Beauveria bassiana(Balsamo) Vuillemin was used concurrently with sawdust bedding to manage the house fly,Musca domesticaL., in calf hutches on New York dairy farms. Sawdust bedding was compared with straw bedding for larval development. The number of fly larvae recovered from bedding samples was lower in hutches bedded with sawdust (53/liter) than in straw bedding (131/liter).B. bassianaformulated in water and a surfactant (Tween 80) was evaluated for the control of house fly adults. The prevalence ofB. bassianain the adult fly population was significantly greater in hutches sprayed with conidia than in untreated control hutches. Maximum weekly recovery ofB. bassianawas 43 and 47% of the collected fly populations at two treatment farms. A second mycosis caused byEntomophthora muscae(Cohn) Fresenius developed to an epizootic in untreated and treated fly populations. Combined mycoses fromB. bassianaandE. muscaereached 60 and 54% of the fly population on two of the treatment farms. The prevalence ofE. muscaereached 70% in the fly population on the control farm.

Nosema Disease of the Parasitoid Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae): Prevalence, Patterns of Transmission, Management, and Impact

Abstract The microsporidium Nosema muscidifuracis was found in 1.1 and 10.7% of wild Muscidifurax raptor collected on New York dairy farms in 1991 and 1992. Higher (84%) levels of infection were observed on farms where infected M. raptor from a commercial insectary were released. Adult M. raptor became infected (100%) after feeding on spore suspensions of N. muscidifuracis, whereas house fly (Musca domestica L.) adults and larvae did not. Adult M. raptor became infected (16-25%) after feeding on infected parasitoid immatures within host puparia. Transmission rates of N. muscidifuracis increased with increasing parasitoid crowding levels because of cannibalism by healthy parasitoid immatures on infected immatures in superparasitized hosts. Maternal transmission was 100% efficient but there was no paternal or venereal transmission. Disease was reduced 35-93% by immersing infected parasitoid eggs within fly puparia in a 47°C water bath for 30-60 min. Eliminating disease from an established laboratory colony of M. raptor resulted in a 10-fold increase in parasitoid fecundity.

The Impact of Nutrient Loading Restrictions on Dairy Farm Profitability

A linear programming model was utilized to determine the economically optimal dairy herd intensities, manure application rates, and crop mix for unrestricted and restricted scenarios of N loss on New York dairy farms. Two representative farms were developed for dairies with 60 or 250 cows that utilized manure handling systems: no storage and daily spreading versus 6 mo of storage and biannual spreading, respectively. Both farms were substantially affected by the imposition of restrictions on N loss, although profitability decreases were relatively smaller on the larger farm, partially because of better conservation and more efficient utilization of manure nutrients. Optimal cow numbers per hectare decreased by nearly 35% on the smaller famr as restrictions on N loss intensified. When initial hectares were retained, rates of return to equity capital decreased >150 and 100% on the farms with 60 and 250 cows, respectively, compared with 47 and 42% when hectare adjustments were optimal. Whether dairy farmers are able to make hectare adjustments under restrictions on N loss may well determine future sustainability and survival of the farming operations. If additional hectares are not available or feasible to acquire, herd reductions may be necessary to meet restrictions on N loss, dropping profitability even further.

Do New York Dairy Farmers Maximize Profits or Minimize Costs?

AbstractThe Weak Axiom of Profit Maximization and Weak Axiom of Cost Minimization were used to determine whether each of forty‐nine New York dairy farms displayed behavior consistent with profit maximization or cost minimization. These were tested for each farm across eleven years of data, correcting for technological change using previously estimated nonparametric Malmquist productivity indices. The results indicate that some were moderately successful in maximizing profits, but more came closer to minimizing costs. Over half of the observations were within 10% of minimum costs.

A Diagnostic and Prognostic Tool for Epidemiologic and Economic Analyses of Dairy Herd Health Management

A computer program framework was established to enable a dairy herd production consultant to perform whole-herd analysis. The diagnostic process was an extensive data analysis 1) to derive key parameters related to production, reproductive, and health and 2) to produce input to a prognostic process. The prognostic process synthesized the obtained information into short- or long-term prognoses for the herd through a complex herd simulation model. Site specificity of parameter estimation and forecasting and explorability of assumptions and results were major characteristics of the approach. A user acceptance problem related to the simulation was addressed through a simultaneous process of development and validation during the introduction of the program framework into veterinary practices. The generally slow adoption of herd simulation models in extension work could be due to lack of credibility of the models. A major barrier to adoption of the current whole-herd approach may be the considerable time required to understand and use the tools properly. An example of a simulation experimental based on data from a New York dairy farm was provided, and the interpretation and practical applications of such simulations were discussed.

Two Potential Uses of Excess Capacity in the Milking Parlor

Milking parlors are a large and often underutilized investment on most dairy farms. Two viable options for increasing usage of the milking parlor are switching to three times daily milking or increasing the number of cows milked twice daily. A basic scenario was developed from data collected on New York dairy farms in 1992. To determine the economic impact of the two alternatives on the base farm, prepared statements of income and cash flow are reviewed. Net farm income and cash flow increase with the adoption of either alternative. Net cash flow increases more rapidly with the move to three times daily milking and does not require new debt. Expansion of the herd milked twice daily results in a larger increase in net farm income. Fluctuations in milk price, milk production, feed costs, and interest rate have a greater impact on net farm income and cash flow for the herd expansion option.

Noise-induced hearing loss in randomly selected New York dairy farmers

To understand better the effects of noise levels associated with dairy farming, we randomly selected 49 full-time dairy farmers from an established cohort. Medical and occupational histories were taken and standard audiometric testing was done. Forty-six males (94%) and three females (6%) with a mean age of 43.5 (+/- 13) years and an average of 29.4 (+/- 14) years in farming were tested. Pure Tone Average thresholds (PTA4) at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 kHz plus High Frequency Average thresholds (HFA3) at 3.0, 4.0, and 6.0 kHz were calculated. Subjects with a loss of greater than or equal to 20 db in either ear were considered abnormal. Eighteen subjects (37%) had abnormal PTA4S and 32 (65%) abnormal HFA3S. The left ear was more severely affected in both groups (p less than or equal to .05, t-test). Significant associations were found between hearing loss and years worked (odds ratio 4.1, r = .53) and age (odds ratio 4.1, r = .59). No association could be found between hearing loss and measles; mumps; previous ear infections; or use of power tools, guns, motorcycles, snowmobiles, or stereo headphones. Our data suggest that among farmers, substantial hearing loss occurs especially in the high-frequency ranges. Presbycusis is an important confounding variable.

Evaluation of Two Methods for Release of Entomophthora muscae (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae) To Infect House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on Dairy Farms

Two methods for initiating epizootics of Entomophthora muscae (Cohn)Fresenius in house fly, Musca domestica L., populations were evaluated on New York dairy farms. First, 500 fresh, laboratory-infected fly cadavers were placed weekly for 10wk inside barns in areas of high fly activity. Second, 2,500 living, infected flies were released on each of two occasions spaced 3 wk apart. Releases were started in mid-June. Three farms were used for each treatment plus three control farms. The E. muscae used for the releases had been isolated from house flies collected from dairies the year before and had been maintained by continuous fly-to-fly passage. Prevalence rates on both types of E. muscae release farms were twice as high (23–28%) as on control farms (12%)in the weeks after the start of the releases. Releases were more effective on farms with high fly populations than on farms with low fly populations. Examination of conidia indicated that the released strain (8–18 nuclei per conidium) became established as a result of the releases. Epizootics occurred on all farms, including controls, in September through November. Infections in the spring were exclusively with a strain of E. muscae with 2–8 nuclei per conidium; by fall, most infections (86–93%) were with a strain with 8–18 nuclei per conidium, even on control farms. Nuclear densities in the laboratory culture remained constant at 8–18 nuclei per conidium during this shift in wild infections. Neither of the E. muscae treatments significantly reduced fly populations.

A Comparison of New York and Ontario Dairy Farms

The objective of this study was to compare characteristics, revenues and production costs, profitability, and efficiency measures for New York and Ontario dairy farms in 1990. Records were from the New York Dairy Farm Business Summary and the Ontario Dairy Farm Accounting Project. Amounts of milk per cow and milk sold per farm were higher in New York, but farm assets per cow were much higher in Ontario. Under current policies, revenues per 45.4kg (hundredweight) of milk sold were $3.00 higher in Ontario than New York. Operating costs of production per 45.4kg were $.67 to $.89 (6 to 8%) higher in Ontario. However, total costs per 45.4kg, including interest on equity capital and operator's labor and management, were $5.00 to $6.00 lower for New York farms, and the opportunity cost of equity capital in quota for Ontario was about $1.19/45.4kg. Dairy farms in both regions earned less than a 5% return on equity capital in 1990. The average Ontario farm was more profitable than a New York farm with the same number of cows, but New York farms with average assets equal to those of the average Ontario farm were decidedly more profitable. New York farms were more efficient in use of labor and spent more on commercial feeds per 45.4kg of milk sold, but grain and hay yields in the two regions were similar.

Short-Run and Long-Run Efficiencies of New York Dairy Farms

Short-run and long-run technical and allocative efficiencies were computed for 395 New York dairy farms using data envelopment or nonparametric procedures on 1990 Dairy Farm Business Summary data. The farms were, on average, more allocatively efficient in the short run than in the long run, but were more technically efficient in the long run than in the short run. Stanchion barns were as efficient as milking parlors, and milking more than two times per day did not increase efficiency.

Microsporidioses of Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and other pteromalid parasitoids of muscoid flies

An undetermined microsporidium was found infecting Muscidifurax raptor, a parasitoid of muscoid flies. Housefly hosts of the parasitoid in culture were not infected. Spores were present in newly deposited parasitoid eggs and vertical transmission experiments indicated 100% efficiency of maternal transmission. An uninfected culture was established by isolating parasitoids for oviposition and discarding the progeny of infected females. Infected parasitoids took longer to complete development, lived half as long, and produced 1 8 to 1 2 as many progeny as uninfected parasitoids. Thirty-five percent of field-collected parasitoids from New York dairy farms in August of 1990 were infected, although infection increased to 100% after two generations in culture. A survey of 11 pteromalid species collected from different geographic areas indicated that microsporidioses in Muscidifurax raptor and M. zaraptor are ubiquitous. Urolepis rufipes was the only other species examined that was also infected with microsporidia.

The dangers of dairy farming: The injury experience of 600 workers followed for two years

In order to better understand the work-related injuries sustained on central New York dairy farms, we undertook a two-year population-based study of 600 farmers and farm workers on 201 dairy farms. During the observation period, 1984-1986, 151 persons had 200 injuries, giving an injury rate of 16.6%/year (166 injuries/1,000 workers/year). Men were injured more often than women (p less than or equal to 0.01). Injured workers were older (p less than or equal to 0.01), worked more hours (p less than or equal to 0.001), and had heavier workloads than noninjured workers (p less than or equal to 0.001). The growing and harvest seasons had the most injuries; winter the fewest. More than 2/3 of the injuries occurred in the afternoon. Owners/operators, often the most experienced, knowledgeable people on the farms, were most often hurt. Those working more than 60 hours/week, with greater than 30 acres under tillage/worker, had a relative risk of 2.76 compared with all other workers. The attributable risk for this group was 51%. There were two fatalities, both involved owner/operators. Our findings suggest that previous studies may have underestimated the risks faced by farmers. Dairy farming in central New York is very dangerous work. Those who own and operate these dairy farms are most often hurt and killed. Analysis of events on individual farms will be reported separately.

Occupational hearing loss in New York dairy farmers

A study of 49 randomly selected, full-time dairy farmers was performed to assess the prevalence and nature of hearing loss in this population. An age- and sex-matched group of rural, non-farmers was also studied. Medical, occupational, and recreational histories were taken and standard audiometric testing was administered. Sixty-five percent of farmers had hearing loss in the higher frequencies and 37% had losses in the mid-frequency range as compared to 37% and 12% of non-farmers respectively (p less than .01). Farmers' left ears were more severely affected. The age of the subjects and the number of years spent farming were highly correlated with hearing loss. Correlation and regression analyses supported the hypothesis that the difference in the prevalence of hearing loss between the dairy farmers and the non-farmers was due to occupational noise exposure on the farm.

The impact of computer information systems on dairy farm management decisions

This study focuses on whether information systems improve farm management. Fifty New York dairy farms were selected based on their use of computerized information systems. Each computer user was matched with a non-computer-using farm. On-farm interviews and business summaries were analyzed. Information systems provided the ability to do sensitivity analysis on planning decisions. Their speed of processing and accuracy contributed to control functions. Farmers with information systems spent more time on management tasks, but were more likely to delegate routine decisions. Farmer perceptions were that the systems had produced benefits that were equal to or exceeded costs.

Management Information Systems: Impact on Dairy Farm Profitability

AbstractSeven of 196 New York dairy farms used on‐farm computers for accounting in 1984, rising to twenty‐three in 1987. A regression of net farm income per cow on computer use, years computer experience and other variables showed income increasing the first year of computer use, dropping and rising again by year four.