Traditional Yoga Research Articles

Sanskrit Pathways for Mobilizing Knowledge of Premodern Yoga to Studio-Based Practitioners

Acknowledged in 2016 by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, yoga today can be said to impact three primary sets of stakeholders: (a) global practitioners and professional instructors of studio-based postural yoga; (b) academic scholars investigating yoga’s historical, textual, and cultural life; and (c) traditional culture bearers within established guru lineages in South Asia and the diaspora. These groups are not mutually exclusive, exhaustive, or homogeneous, but there are often significant cleavages between them—particularly in the production and dissemination of authoritative knowledge about yoga’s premodern “roots.” This essay investigates how (anglophone) practitioners of studio-based postural yoga are currently able to access new scholarship on premodern yoga traditions, and the extent to which specialized Sanskrit language training may offer practitioners a pathway for more active participation in this knowledge mobilization process. We suggest that a kinesthetic approach, in which Sanskrit pedagogy is juxtaposed with physical yoga practice in the studio, might further enhance this process, leading to a more equitable engagement between scholars, studio-based practitioners, and traditional culture bearers of yoga.

NEO KUṆḌALINĪ YOGA DALAM UPAYA MENUMBUHKAN KECERDASAN SPIRITUAL DI YAYASAN ANAND ASHRAM

This study discusses Ananda's Neo Kuṇḍalinī Yoga as an Effort to Grow Spiritual Intelligence at the Anand Asrham Foundation. This research is a descriptive research (descriptive research) using the descriptive field method. This study tries to reveal how Ananda's Neo Kuṇḍalinī Yoga practice can make a person become spiritually intelligent. Kuṇḍalinī is a very extraordinary energy found in humans, unfortunately not many people are aware of this, if this energy is successfully raised then every human being is able to optimize abilities that should be possessed as humans. One way to get that energy to rise is by yoga. In this case the yoga carried out at the Anand Ashram Foundation is combining exercises developed from the yoga tradition that will lead to entering the seven stages of the development of chakras with illustrations of Vyayam: 8 warm-up exercises, prāṇāyāma 6 breathing exercises, and āsana,: 19 yoga postures. By doing routine and consistent exercises yoga participants will not only be physically healthy and also be flexible but also be spiritually intelligent because participants are not only equipped with āsana training, but also taught how to make yoga a way of life, so that the benefits of yoga can be applied optimally in everyday life. With the growth of a spiritual attitude, yoga participants have the ability to find awareness and through relationships / interactions with the main forces in the form of energy from those who create the source. So with the rise of energy Kuṇḍalinī participants can become humans who have spiritual intelligence.
 Yoga, Kuṇḍalinī, intelligence, spiritual.

Human Presencing in the Techne of a Contemplative Space

In our colleges and universities, spaces are designated and set aside for specific uses. Students eat in dining halls, not in libraries; they sleep in dorm rooms, not in classrooms. The order and cleanliness of these space, along with the hospitality of the people within these spaces impact the overall experience of those within them. As a contemplative practitioner and educator, I am aware of the importance of creating and cultivating a hospitable, ordered, clean, uncluttered space — both externally and internally to support student learning and development. However, during the spring semester of 2017, an unexpected move from a traditional classroom to a contemplative space within the Interfaith Center for my “Writing about Yoga” course highlighted just how impactful a contemplative space is on student learning. As students learned about the yoga tradition, practiced yogic postures, reflected on and integrated what they had learned and practiced, they not only became more present in writing about their subjective experiences, they engaged with each other in intersubjective experiences. In the process, they became more present and began cultivating a community of care.

Changes in Gait Kinematic Parameters after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury during Post-Acute Rehabilitation

Changes in gait after traumatic brain injury (TBI) are very important for evaluation, clinical reasoning and forintervention programs. Most studies analyze gait during acute phase, but there is lack of information during post-acute period. The aim of the research was to determine gait biomechanical joint angles and centre of mass displacement changes during post-acute TBI rehabilitation. Participant was a 21-year-old male, after severe TBI, 2 years after trauma. Biomechanical joints angles and centre of mass displacement changes were observed during 3D gait analysis. The subject was asked to walk straight 6 meters, 18 times at his preferred comfortable pace. During walking 1–2 minute breaks were made. Intensive 5 week program was composed of physiotherapy (3 times per week) and yoga (2 times per week). Physiotherapy included stretching, coordination, balance and weight-bearing exercises. Yoga was performed to built core stability, train flexibility and diminish muscle tone. After 5 week rehabilitation statistically significant changes were observed in the centre of mass displacement and in lower extremities and lumbar biomechanics (p < 0.05). After procedures trunk flexion and trunk lateral flexion, lateral pelvic tilt increased, while anterior pelvic tilt decreased (p < 0.05). Hip extension at terminal stance increased, as well while hip adduction in stance phase decreased (p < 0.05). Statistically significant reduction was observed in knee flexion at initial contact, mid-stance and midswing phase (p < 0.05). Prevalent knee flexion at initial contact, observed before rehabilitation, decreased after it (p < 0.05). After the procedure lateral centre of mass displacement decreased and vertical centre of mass displacement increased (p < 0.05). Five weeks of rehabilitation composed of traditional physiotherapy and yoga is effective for gait quality treatment. However, further research is necessary to determine gait biomechanical joint angles and dynamic balance improvements during severe post-acute TBI.Keywords: head injury, walking, balance.

Body Temperature and Energy Expenditure During and After Yoga Breathing Practices Traditionally Described as Cooling.

BackgroundIn traditional yoga texts, sheetali and sitkari pranayamas are described as cooling. The present study was aimed at recording the surface body temperature, oxygen consumed, and carbon dioxide eliminated before, during, and after performance of sheetali and sitkari pranayamas.Material/MethodsSeventeen healthy male volunteers with ages between 19 to 25 years (average age 20.7±1.8 years) were assessed in 4 sessions, viz. sheetali pranayama, sitkari pranayama, breath awareness and quiet lying, on 4 separate days, in random sequence. The axillary surface body temperature (TRUSCOPE II, Schiller, China) and metabolic variables (Quark CPET, COSMED, Italy) were recorded in 3 periods: before (5 minutes), during (18 minutes), and after (5 minutes), in each of the 4 sessions. The heat index was calculated in the before and after periods, based on recordings of ambient temperature and humidity. Data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 24.0).ResultsBody temperature increased significantly during sheetali and sitkari (p<0.05, p<0.01; respectively) while it decreased after breath awareness and quiet lying down (p<0.01, p<0.001; respectively) when compared with respective post-exercise states. Oxygen consumption increased by 9.0% during sheetali (p<0.05) and by 7.6% during sitkari (p<0.01) while it decreased significantly during (p<0.05) and after (p<0.01) quiet lying down compared to respective pre-exercise states.ConclusionsThe results do not support the description of these yoga breathing practices as cooling. These yoga breathing practices may be used to induce a mild hypermetabolic state.

Gerald James Larson, 1938–2019

Gerald James Larson, 1938–2019 Joseph Prabhu (bio) The community of scholars in Asian and Comparative Philosophy recently lost one of its leading lights. Gerald James Larson, known more widely as Gerry Larson, passed away suddenly on April 27, 2019 at the age of 81. His death was unexpected because he was just getting ready to leave for India in connection with a meeting centered on his recently published magnum opus Classical Yoga Philosophy and the Legacy of Sāṁkhya. Sadly, he experienced some sharp abdominal pain and passed away two weeks later. Larson's academic, institutional, and organizational contributions were many. While mentioning some of them, I will, in the context of this journal, focus more on his contributions to his field of academic specialization, Sāṁkhya and Yoga; to the discipline of comparative philosophy; and to the building and nurturing of the Society for Asian and Comparative Philosophy (SACP) as avenues and instruments for the discussion of issues in Asian and comparative philosophy. He was best known for his pioneering contributions in the fields of Indian philosophy and religion, particularly in the philosophical areas of classical Yoga and Sāṁkhya, in which he was a world-renowned expert. He had studied the sources carefully and was therefore able to present a solid exposition of these philosophies both in their origins and in their subsequent development. Yoga, in particular, has undergone remarkable transformations as it has traveled in both time and space and become a familiar form of practice both in India and the West, and it is in significant part thanks to Larson that we can trace these transformations. The crowning achievement of his long career was the publication in 2018 of Classical Yoga Philosophy and the Legacy of Sāṁkhya, a work of over one thousand pages, which serves as a book-end to his Classical Sāṁkhya: An Interpretation of its History and Meaning, published in 1969. Yoga in recent times is seen more as an experiential practice and discipline than as a philosophy in the strict sense. The questions that Larson probed in his research in this area are fundamental ones about the nature of philosophy, spanning a more theoretical and/or contemplative understanding on the one [End Page 261] Click for larger view View full resolution Gerald James Larson, 1938–2019 hand and a more practical and engaged one on the other. There is no question that Sāṁkhya is philosophical in the conventional sense, with a metaphysics, an epistemology, a theory of value, and a particular soteriology, and Larson provided one of the most thorough and detailed accounts of Sāṁkhya, both historically and systematically. Yoga, however, is primarily a practice of the will to transcend itself as a will and to achieve (or re-achieve) a primordial state of pure consciousness. It is an ancient practice of Indian life and culture, going back to the very earliest times of recorded history, as mentioned in the Ṛg Veda and the early Upanishads. It existed both prior to and independently of all philosophical systems. To the extent that a philosophy is extracted out of and built from this practice, some of its presuppositions and key notions are markedly different from Sāṁkhya. Larson very carefully and rigorously showed how these two different bodies of thought gradually achieved a sort of rapprochement, whereby Sāṁkhya accepted Yoga as a practical and effective means for the achievement of liberation, while Yoga, with modifications, accepted the theoretical framework of Sāṁkhya. The adoption, with qualifications, of the metaphysics of Sāṁkhya gave Yoga an explicitly philosophical cast, without reducing or mitigating its primarily performative and practical character as a form as meditation with its own set of methods. Thus, Larson always resisted the conventional translations of Yoga as "union" or "yoking." Pure consciousness, by definition, cannot be yoked to or united to anything else. Much of the history and the philosophical contours of both Sāṁkhya and Yoga traditions are also detailed in two large volumes in the ongoing series of the Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, written in collaboration with Ram Shankar Bhattacharya: Sāṁkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy, published in 1987 (volume 4 of...

Christianity as the Basis of Wincenty Lutosławski’s “Polish Yoga”

The article is an attempt to show the importance of Christianity in the reinterpretation of the Indian yoga tradition, in order to include it in a new (Polish) cultural context. Christianity allowed transformation of this culturally alien concept in such a way that it ceased to be seen as something foreign and exotic, and started to be treated as a Polish discipline –in a way specifically addressing the needs and conditions of the Polish nation. The article focusses on the approach to yoga proposed by Wincenty Lutosławski, the author of the first “Polish yoga”handbook, although other interpretations are also referred to, in order to demonstrate the widest possible approach to this discipline.

Yoga and relaxation for promoting public health: A review of the practice and supportive research

Summary The purpose of this review is to present yoga as an important tool for both disease prevention and health care. Yoga involves a holistic approach that lacks the mechanistic fragmentation of the impact on individual organs and body systems, which arises from much of the specialization found in modern medicine. Lifestyle diseases are increasingly a problem. The incidence of diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, cancer, mental illness and obesity is increasing worldwide. This is true even of countries that, until recently, followed a traditional way of life. Technology, the pace of life, stress, and reduced physical activity serve to degrade the general level of health in societies across the globe. In Western societies, these factors have raised the demand for preventive and therapeutic antidotes, leading Westerners to turn to traditional yoga, which is, however, often modified to the point of distorting its essence. In its original nature yoga is a non-religious, psychosomatic system based on natural laws, inspired by science to act on the body in a way that is integrated into the natural world. The system of Ayurvedic medicine works in parallel with yoga, aiming at the same holistic effect. Both it and the various elements of yoga, in particular asanas (postures), are the means of effecting beneficial changes in psychosomatic functioning. Yoga itself relaxes and strengthens physical movement, focusing particular attention on the mobility of the spine. It is also the perfect medium for achieving mental balance. These properties of yoga have made it useful in the treatment of cancer and other modern diseases, in slowing the body’s aging process, and in achieving general welfare and well-being. More intense forms of yoga practice, such as the ancient method of fitness training called Suryanamaskar, have demonstrated their effectiveness in preventing and treating cardiovascular diseases, respiratory ailments and other conditions.

Yogic intervention (Abhyas &amp; Vairagya) for the modern lifestyle disorders: A descriptive study

Abhyas and Vairagya, the core principles of Yoga, set the stage for other practices that lead to control of the mind and Self-realization. Together, the principles take one through the right path to achieve the ultimate goal of realizing the Self. We saw so many things in our surrounding that do misguide us to our main goal of our life (Kaivalya). These obstacles can remove with help of Abhyas & Vairagya. As in Patanjal Yoga Sutra Maharshi Patanjali said that abhy?sa vair?gy?bhy?? tannirodha?. Researches around the world show that high rates of obesity, low levels of physical activity and poor dietary intake are highly prevalent for ill health. In modern era we see that so much of people are suffering from lifestyle disorders like stress, diabetes, asthma, hypertension, anxiety, musculoskeletal disorder and so much many problems. Here in this research we are going to study about Yogic Management of these problems. Yogic Practices are very useful regarding lifestyle disorders. Initial studies suggest that Yoga has a positive impact on health, including tentative evidence of benefits for weight-management, and related factors such as disordered eating, physical fitness, sleep, mood, and stress. The traditional Yoga methods of inward focus, body awareness, and physical empowerment may promote a positive body image and support health more holistically than traditional weight management interventions (e.g. exercise programs). Practitioners know about Abhyas & Vaiargya are part of Yoga. Yoga is rooted in Indian Philosophy has been part of Indian Spritiual practice for millennia, Yoga has been adopted for use in complementary and alternative medicine in Western Society. In the latter setting, Yoga is must often associated with Physical Postures, Breathe Control and Meditation; and different Yoga School have emerged that put varying focus on physical practices, practices such as Asanas, Pranayama, Yog Nidra are parts of Abhyas and in Vairagya - Dhyana and Selflessness (Niskamkarma) promotes physical wellbeing and mental calmness. In Shreemadbhagavadgeeta Lord Krishana said that abhy?sena tu kaunteya vair?gye?a cha g?ihyate means that by Practice and Detachment, mind can be controlled. Attachment leads towards sorrow and vice versa. Therefore Vairagya should be practiced in daily life. It is said in Amritbindupnishad that Man eva manushyanam karanam bandh mokshayoh means that Mind is the cause of renunciation and bondages. Mind is considered as twofold: - pure and impure. It is impure with the resolve of personal desire. It is pure when devoid of all selfish desires. Through Abhyas (Practices) and Vairagya (Detachment) one can become physically fit, mentally sound and can cope with daily stressors.

The cultivation of joy: practices from the Buddhist tradition, positive psychology, and yogic philosophy

ABSTRACTThe emotion of joy is often thought of as the result of an external stimulus. Few traditions explicitly instruct on how to cultivate joy from within. There are a few exceptions to this. First, in the Buddhist tradition, exist several practices by which to cultivate joy. Second, in positive psychology, specific interventions may be gateways to joy. Third, the practice and philosophy of traditional yoga is believed to lead to a state of ultimate joy. We can postulate what joy is and demonstrate why joy is beneficial, but it’s equally important to understand the how of joy. As such, future scholarship on the subject of joy must include the exploration of various modalities which facilitate the cultivation of joy in our lives and in the lives of others.

A Study of Literature about Correlation between Chakra Awakening and Autonomic Nervous Immune System

The chakra, meaning wheel or discus in Sanskrit, is a core concept of the Indian asceticism tradition. In the yoga tradition, the chakra is understood as the center of life energy or spirit, which can not be accurately identified from an anatomical or psychiatric point of view. The chakra is located in the central nervous system, which is the brain and spinal cord, and linked to the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is a nervous system that autonomously regulates the function of the body without being directly affected by the cerebrum, and is an important nervous system connected to most of the vital organs of the human body. The stresses and pressures we experience directly affect the autonomic nervous system, which causes the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves in the autonomic nervous system. Therefore, the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system in the autonomic nervous system is highly important to raise and maintain immunity. The purpose of this research is the study of literature about correlation between the chakra and autonomic nervous system. For this purpose, the correlation between the organs related to the chakra and the autonomic nervous system was examined, and the effects of awakening or activation of the seven chakras on the psychoneuroimmunology(PNI) were examined. Since the chakra theory of yoga tradition is usually based on intuitive experience, there is little clarification of the effects of the chakra arousal on the autonomic nervous system. Therefore, this study intends to investigate the effect of the chakra awakening on the autonomic nervous system by reinterpreting the chakra theory of yoga tradition from the viewpoint of autonomic immunity today.

Vedanta and social work practice

ABSTRACTSpirituality holds an important place in the lives of social workers and their clients. It informs our understanding of the world, our morals and values, and our conduct. Spirituality is a powerful tool of guidance and healing. Recognizing its importance, efforts have been made to integrate spirituality into social work practice. A gap in these efforts is the inclusion of epistemological foundations of key Eastern religions and spiritual practice. Concepts such as yoga and meditation have been adapted as healing methods; however, the knowledge base that informs them has been neglected. This article addresses this gap with an exploration of Vedanta and how it can be integrated into social work practice. Vedanta is the body of knowledge that informs the traditions of yoga, Ayurveda, and Hinduism. This article explains key concepts of Vedanta including Advaita Vedanta, the five sheaths (ways of knowing), pathways to Vedanta (methods of obtaining knowledge), dharma, karma/reincarnation, the nature of reality, and the lineage of Gurus. The second part of the article focuses on the application of Vedanta to social work practice within existing literature and identifies areas for further research.

Yoga as a step to “authentic vertical tension” opportunities and reality

Modern changes in society, globalization, intercultural contacts have led to unexpected results associated with an understanding of the tradition of yoga. Specialists explore the cultural, psychological, medical and practical, social dimensions of yoga, but the basic meaning of yoga as a search for opportunities for vertical transcendental ascent in a tense and rapid world development pace is leveled. There are a number of studies describing the types of modern yoga, which were formed under the influence of the culture of the west. The authors propose to reconsider the idea of ​​the formation of a western model, based on the thoughts of p. Sloterdijk. The art of education (paideia) was an innovative step of the ancient greeks in order to bring pupils closer to the vertical wall as a symbol, contributing to the implementation of steps to the impossible, to the highest - transcendental. But the demands of life under the conditions of the emergence of an industrial society reduced the tension of this slogan. In the culture of the industrial society, yoga as a traditional sphere of eastern philosophy was transformed into a new phenomenon, the role and significance of which is rather vague in relation to its roots. Most often, yoga is understood as a synthesis of the spiritual and the physical with the dominance of the latter, without taking into account its ideological character, philosophy, experience of the guru, yogin (teacher). The authors emphasize the similarity of ideas between high demands in search of an exit to the transcendental cultures of the east and the west with examples of parallel reading of the ideas of paideia and traditional yoga. The epistemology of yoga helps to realize the continuity of knowledge and morality. In the conditions of the development of today, when we feel the transition to a new nature of knowledge, where the interest of the body takes place in new contexts, yoga begins a new round of transformations. The phenomenon of the body acquires special significance in the conditions of a departure from the metaphysical tradition of human understanding. The body becomes a metaphor for the designation of everything that goes beyond the physical. If the epoch of modernism has deprived a person of his main discovery - the search for the transcendent, the search for an outlet to him, then in the new round of human development the idea of ​​teaching anthropotechnics can bring yoga closer to its original origins.

Effectiveness of Adjuvant Yoga Therapy in Diabetic Lung: A Randomized Control Trial.

Context:Recent studies provide ample evidence of the benefits of yoga in various chronic disorders. Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and Sandler coined the term “Diabetic Lung” for the abnormal pulmonary function detected in diabetic patients due underlying pulmonary dysfunction. Yoga therapy may help in achieving better pulmonary function along with enhanced glycaemic control and overall health benefits.Aim:To study the effect of adjuvant yoga therapy in diabetic lung through spirometry.Settings and Design:Randomized control trial was made as interdisciplinary collaborative work between departments of Yoga Therapy, Pulmonary Medicine and Endocrinology, of MGMC & RI, Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth Puducherry.Materials and Methods:72 patients of diabetic lung as confirmed by spirometry (<70% of expected) were randomized into control group (n=36) who received only standard medical treatment and yoga group (n=36) who received yoga training thrice weekly for 4 months along with standard medical management. Yoga therapy protocol included yogic counseling, preparatory practices, Asanas or static postures, Pranayama or breathing techniques and relaxation techniques. Hathenas of the Gitananda Yoga tradition were the main practices used. Spirometry was done at the end of the study period. Data was analyzed by Student's paired and unpaired 't' test as it passed normality.Results:There was a statistically significant (P < 0.05) reduction in weight, and BMI along with a significant (P < 0.01) improvement in pulmonary function (FEV1, FVC) in yoga group as compared to control group where parameters worsened over study period.Conclusion:It is concluded from the present RCT that yoga has a definite role as an adjuvant therapy as it enhances standard medical care and hence is even more significant in routine clinical management of diabetes, improving physical condition and pulmonary function.

Namaste in the USA: The Growing Pains that Traditional Yoga Faces in America – An International Marketing Case Study

Namaste in the USA: The Growing Pains that Traditional Yoga Faces in America – An International Marketing Case Study

Lifestyle - A common denominator for the onset and management of migraine headache: Complementing traditional approaches with scientific evidence

Background:Ayurveda and Yoga have gained popularity in the management of various chronic health problems associated with pain including migraine headache. It is evident from both scientific as well as traditional literature that stress, diet, sleep, and exposure to extreme climatic conditions act as triggering factors for the onset of migraine. Hence, it is essential to focus on lifestyle including diet as important factors for prevention and as adjuvant factors in the management of migraine headache.Aim:The aim was to propose a new perspective to the understanding of migraine headache keeping in view the role of lifestyle including diet.Methods:Classical Ayurveda texts and traditional Yoga scriptures were used to compile information on the role of lifestyle including diet in the onset and management of migraine headache. This was complemented by PubMed-based review of scientific literature.Outcome:Ayurveda texts provide an extensive information about the basic understanding, causes, precipitating factors, and management of migraine headache, while Yoga texts refer to the concept of mental stress (adhi) leading to physical health problems (vyadhi). It is evident from the literature that diet, sleep, exposure to extreme climatic conditions, and mental stress play an important role in the onset and management of migraine headache.Conclusion:Lifestyle appears to be the common factor for both onset and management of migraine headache.

Let the Sadhus Talk

Based on extensive interviews and ethnographic fieldwork, this article presents understandings of yoga among sadhus in northern India. Despite the existence of several ethnographic studies on Indian ascetic communities, very few have described their practices of yoga, nor the self-understanding of these communities regarding yoga in the wider religious life. This article bridges the gap between modern, transnational forms of yoga, philological research on textual yoga traditions, and the understanding of yoga within ascetic communities, by providing a cross-section of yoga practice across a range of ascetic orders. This article presents initial findings of what will be a five-year, full-time research project on ascetic practitioners of yoga, as part of the Hatha Yoga Project, SOAS, London.

Iyengar Yoga for Women

This article explores women-oriented Iyengar Yoga (IY) practices through a historical, textual and ethnographical analysis. These practices were inaugurated by the teachings of B. K. S. Iyengar and Geeta Iyengar and globally expanded by IY teachers. The research focuses on how these pioneering practices where formed, the way they are perceived with respect to the ancient yoga tradition, and the way they are implemented among IY teachers. Drawing on Iyengar literature and interviews with IY teachers, the article suggests that womenoriented practices are considered by Iyengar members as rooted in ancient knowledge which was illuminated by the Iyengars. Also, women-oriented IY practices manifest what might be considered as the distinct attributes of IY teachings. Women-oriented practices are perceived as a distinct, yet inseparable segment of IY practices. While Iyengar teachers express diverse standpoints regarding specialized practices' necessity and usage, they are an inherent element of the contemporary Iyengar teaching tradition.

Etched in Stone: Sixteenth-century Visual and Material Evidence of Śaiva Ascetics and Yogis in Complex Non-seated Āsanas at Vijayanagara

This article reassesses the history of postural yoga in precolonial India by drawing attention to recently discovered visual material evidence of non-seated postures carved onto the pillars of Vijayanagara temples at Hampi in Karnataka. Based on inscriptional evidence dating to the early 1500s CE, these sculptures represent important and overlooked early visual evidence for the practice of standing postures, inversions, and complex “pretzel-shaped” balancing postures in late-medieval South India. A number of sculptures bear a marked similarity to certain non-seated āsanas featured in more modern postural yoga systems, and might represent some of the earliest evidence of their existence. To contextualize these images and understand their significance within the larger history of yoga, the article begins with a preliminary genealogy of āsana and postural yoga traditions, highlighting a particular shift from seated to non-seated āsanas that is evinced in both the textual and visual-sculptural record. The author suggests that this shift in psychophysical functionality and praxis of yogic āsana may have opened up new anatomical potentials for engaging the body within a yogic context, and that this shift, alongside intermingling with much older traditions of asceticism (tapas), may partially explain the surge in complex non-seated āsanas featured in many yoga texts following the sixteenth century. Drawing upon other archeological sites, textual, epigraphical, and visual materials, the article makes the case that some of the ascetic figures in complex yogic postures sculpted at Hampi are depictions of Nātha yogis performing the techniques of Haṭhayoga.

Premodern Yoga Traditions and Ayurveda

The research for this article was prompted by the question: were Yoga and Āyurveda as intimately connected in premodern times as they to seem today? It attempts to give a preliminary answer by assessing the influence of Āyurveda on a corpus of mediaeval Yoga texts, in terms of shared terminology, theory and praxis. The date of this corpus ranges from the eleventh to the nineteenth century CE, and all of its texts teach physical techniques and an ascetic state of dormant meditative absorption (samādhi), either as auxiliaries within a system of Yoga or as autonomous systems in themselves. The physical techniques became known as Haṭhayoga and the ascetic state of samādhi as Rājayoga, and the texts in which they appear posit the practice (abhyāsa) of Yoga as the chief means to liberation (mokṣa). The article begins with a discussion of the terminology in these texts that is also found in the Bṛhattrayī, that is, the Carakasaṃhitā, the Suśrutasaṃhitā and Vāgbhaṭa’s Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā. It proceeds to discuss the relevant theory (digestive fire, humoral theory, vital points, herbs) and praxis (āsana, ṣaṭkarma and therapy or cikitsā) of the yoga texts in question in order to assess the possible influence of Āyurveda.