Pectin Yield Research Articles

Extraction of high methoxyl pectin from unripe waste Ponkan mandarine (Citrus reticulata Blanco cv. Ponkan) with an eco-friendly solvent

The aqueous batch extraction of pectin from unripe Ponkan mandarin was evaluated for potential application in the food industry. A small central composite design with 4 variables (temperature, volume to mass ratio, pH, and mean particle size) and 3 levels was applied for pectin extraction optimization. Also, the kinetic of the pectin yield extraction was investigated at temperatures 70–90 °C, stirring rate of 100–700 rpm, ultrasound pretreatment system, and modeling using four mathematical models. The pectin extraction process was evaluated by yield of pectin and esterification degree. FTIR, TGA, and DTA were performed to evaluate the quality of pectin obtained. The small central composite design demonstrated that temperature and volume to mass ratio were significant variables, and the highest yield of pectin extraction was 11.62 % obtained at temperature and volume to molar ratio of 81.9 °C and 33.9 v/w %, respectively. Besides, the esterification degree showed higher than 70 % for all extraction conditions, suggesting high methoxyl pectin. The kinetics showed the stirring rate and the ultrasound pretreatment did not cause any significant alteration, while high temperatures proved to be beneficial to the rate and the yield of the pectin extraction. The best fit was provided by Fick's law, suggesting the extraction process is limited by internal mass transfer. FTIR showed the functional groups expected for pectin, and TGA and DTA indicated that the pectin obtained is proper for most food products, as only above 200 °C the pectin should degrade.

Modification of pectin with high-pressure processing treatment of fresh orange peel before pectin extraction: Part I. The effects on pectin extraction and structural properties

The possibility of utilizing endogenous plant pectin methyl-esterase (PME) to modify pectin in source material prior to pectin extraction is proposed and explored in this study. This is based on the reports about activation of endogenous PME in plant-based foods by high-pressure processing (HPP) treatment. Fresh orange (Hamlin) peel from a local commercial juice plant was pretreated with HPP at different combinations of pressures and durations, followed by pectin extraction with a commercial method. The effects of HPP pretreatments on pectin yield and structural properties of the extracted pectins were determined. HPP pretreatment increased the yield of subsequent pectin extraction by 41.10 %. Crude extracts from HPP-treated peels showed higher PME activities than the untreated peel. Pectins extracted from HPP pretreated peel (Hp) had a lower degree of methyl-esterification (DM), accompanied by an increase in degree of blockiness (DB) of non-esterified galacturonic acid (GalA) than the control (pectin extracted from un-treated peel). GalA content and linearity of pectin (LP) were higher, while neutral sugar content and degree of branching (DBr) were lower in Hp. The reduction in weight average molecular weight of Hp was minor, and it was positively correlated with a reduction in neutral sugars, indicating an effect of pectin debranching without degradation of the pectin main chain. The effects of HPP on the pectin main chain, degree, and distribution of methyl-esterification in this study were similar to the reported effects of orange PME on extracted pectin. The identified pectin structural features were validated by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy analysis and a newly developed lateral flow assay. The study indicates that HPP modification of pectin structure in fresh orange peel before pectin extraction may be an efficient and economical way to generate pectin with desirable structural features and to increase pectin yield.

Development of Modified-Release Diclofenac Sodium Capsules Using Blends of Pectin-Clay Multiparticulate Hybrid Systems as Release Retardants

A combination of inorganic and organic hybrid systems is of high research interest as they provide novel hybrid systems for the improvement of existing properties, overcoming limitations of the parent materials, and for the optimization of their controlled release potential. This study sorted to develop and pharmaceutically assess the release profile of diclofenac sodium using cocoa pod husk (CPH) blended with different proportions of either talc or bentonite as multiparticulate composite release modifiers. Preformulation investigations of the multiparticulate hybrid systems included pH, swelling index, moisture content, elemental contents, and flow properties. The FTIR was also used to investigate the compatibilities between pectin and bentonite (PB), pectin and talc (PT), and diclofenac and pectin-talc (DPT), as well as diclofenac and pectin-bentonite (DPB). The diclofenac content, uniformity of the weight of capsules, in vitro drug release, and the kinetics and mechanism of release of diclofenac from the hybrid systems were also investigated using mathematical models. The pectin yield was 23.3%, with the water-holding capacities of pectin-talc (PT) and pectin-bentonite (PB) hybrid systems being 6.4% and 5.0%, respectively. The swelling indices of PT and PB were 110.0 and 130.0 in 0.1 M HCL at pH 1.2 and 130.0 and 149.0 in phosphate buffer at pH 6.8, respectively. This system was also found to exhibit excellent flow properties, and there were no diclofenac-excipient interactions. All formulated batches passed the pharmacopoeial and nonpharmacopoeial tests. They also demonstrated controlled release properties via different release kinetics and mechanisms. This study shows that the pectin-talc and pectin-bentonite multiparticulate composites could be used as release modifiers in pharmaceutical preparations.

Pectin-rich dragon fruit peel extracts: An environmentally friendly emulsifier of natural origin.

Pectin extraction is generally an energy-intensive industrial process, while on the other hand their extraction methods vary from different sources. Starting with that perspective, pectin (WSP) containing ultra-low degree of methylation (31.08±1.27%) from dragon fruit peel (DFP) was extracted by using pure water at room temperature. WSP, dominant in DFP (17.13±1.01%), showed both a high molecular weight and a wide molecular weight distribution, while the yield of the rest acid-soluble pectin (HAP) from DFP residue was only 5.22±0.76%. Furthermore, WSP can stabilize emulsions over a wide range of concentrations and oil phases, especially HIPE. Therefore, the hypothesis was verified that the pectin-rich extract from dragon fruit peel with excellent emulsifying properties could be simply extracted by pure water. This environmentally-friendly and energy-saving extraction method provides a new insight to increase the additional value of dragon fruit peel produced in food processing.

Effect of Temperature and Extraction Time on the Yield, Water Content, and Methoxyl of Coconut Fiber Pectin

This research aims to see the effect of temperature and extraction time on water content, yield and methoxyl content of coconut fiber pectin. This research was carried out experimentally factoril in Design Random Complete, which consists two treatment that is temperature extraction and extraction time with three repetitions. The results of this research show that treatment temperature extraction very influence yield pectin, rate water and methoxyl pectin while the extraction time affects the water content of the pectin. At a temperature of 70 O C and long extraction 60 minutes obtained the highest average yield of pectin, namely 4.31%, while the average the lowest pectin yield was obtained from treatment with an extraction temperature of 90 ° C and an extraction time of 90 minute. Average rate methoxyl highest obtained from treatment temperature 70 O C and long extraction 30 minute, whereas average percent rate methoxyl Lowest obtained from treatment with an extraction temperature of 90 O C and an extraction time of 90 minutes, namely 8.03% and 7.61% respectively. From the results obtained, it was concluded that the pectin obtained was classified as deep pectin group with high methoxyl content, namely >7%. Average percent of pectin content The lowest was 90 O C and the extraction time was 90 minutes, namely 10.19%, while the highest obtained from treatment with an extraction temperature of 70 O C and an extraction time of 30 minutes. From the results of the analysis this water content means that the water content of the coconut fiber pectin obtained is deep study this has fulfil condition for water content dry pectin that is 10-14%.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and characterization of citrus peel pectin: Comparison between pummelo (Citrus grandis L. Osbeck) and sweet lime (Citrus limetta Risso)

Citrus peels are a commercial source for pectin extraction which is widely used in the food industry as a hydrocolloid, fat mimetic, and gelling agent. Acid extraction is an established method for extraction; however, environmental and consumer concerns are pushing processors to explore sustainable and green methods to provide clean solutions. The present study was designed to optimize pectin extraction from pummelo and sweet lime peels using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). The optimized conditions of UAE obtained through response surface methodology (RSM) were: sonication time = 9.38 min, power = 44.01%, and liquid-solid ratio (L:S) of 46.8:1. These levels resulted in maximum pectin yield (26.35%) and high galacturonic acid content (69.11%; GalA) from pummelo peels as compared to sweet lime peels. The pectin extracted via UAE was food-grade with a low degree of methylation (<50%) and high functional quality. Characterization of pectin through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and rheology confirmed its similarity to commercial pectin. Pummelo peel pectin demonstrated high biological activity in inhibiting lipid deposition in HepG2 cells and low cytotoxicity in 3-(4,5-Dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Overall, based on rheological and functional properties, pummelo peels were found to be superior to sweet lime for commercial pectin extraction. The findings suggest that citrus peel pectin with low degree of esterification (DE<50%) is a valuable ingredient for formulating low glycemic functional foods. Overall UAE seems to be an efficient, economic, and sustainable method for extraction of high-quality pectin.

Polyphenol-Enriched Pectin from Pomegranate Peel: Multi-Objective Optimization of the Eco-Friendly Extraction Process.

A multi-objective optimization was performed using response surface methodology to obtain a high-value-added product, pectin enriched in polyphenols, from pomegranate peel. For this purpose, a green extraction technique that combines citric acid and ultrasound was carried out considering three variables: time, pH, and temperature. The extraction procedure was optimized using the Box-Behnken design, these being the most suitable conditions, with an extraction time of 34.16 min, a pH of 2.2, and a temperature of 89.87 °C. At this point, the pectin yield was 31.89%, with a total retained polyphenol content of 15.84 mg GAE/g pectin. In addition, the water activity, ash content, equivalent weight, methoxyl content, and degree of esterification were determined for the pectin obtained at the optimal point. This study demonstrates that polyphenol-enriched pectin can be obtained from pomegranate peel via an eco-friendly and efficient method, and that it presents similar properties to commercial pectin, preserving its quality and with potential use as an ingredient or food supplement with a high nutritional value. This work contributes to developing sustainable strategies to valorize pomegranate agro-industrial waste and produce high-value functional ingredients.

A Comparative Analysis of the Physico-Chemical Properties of Pectin Isolated from the Peels of Seven Different Citrus Fruits.

In the present research work, pectin was isolated from the peels of seven citrus fruits (Citrus limon, Citrus limetta, Citrus sinensis, Citrus maxima, Citrus jambhiri, Citrus sudachi, and Citrus hystrix) for a comparison of its physicochemical parameters and its potential use as a thickening agent, gelling agent, and food ingredient in food industries. Among the seven citrus fruits, the maximum yield of pectin was observed from Citrus sudachi, and the minimum yield of pectin was observed from Citrus maxima. The quality of each pectin sample was compared by using parameters such as equivalent weight, anhydrouronic acid (AUA) content, methoxy content, and degree of esterification. It was observed that all seven pectin samples had a high value of equivalent weight (more than 1000), suggesting that all the pectin samples had a high content of non-esterified galacturonic acid in the molecular chains, which provides viscosity and water binding properties. The methoxy content and degree of esterification of all the pectins was lower than 50%, which suggests that it cannot easily disperse in water and can form gel only in presence of divalent cations. The AUA content of all isolated pectins samples was above 65%, which suggests that the pectin was pure and can be utilized as a food ingredient in domestic foods and food industries. From the FTIR analysis of pectin, it was observed that the bond pattern of Citrus maxima, Citrus jambhiri, and Citrus hystrix was similar. The bond pattern of Citrus limon, Citrus limetta, and Citrus sinensis was similar. However, the bond pattern of Citrus sudachi was different from that of all other citrus fruits. The difference in the bond pattern was due to the hydrophobic nature of pectin purified from Citrus limon, Citrus limetta, Citrus sudachi, and Citrus sinensis and the hydrophilic nature of pectin purified from Citrus maxima, Citrus jambhiri, and Citrus hystrix. Hence, hydrophobic pectin can be utilized in the preparation of hydrogels, nanofibers, food packaging material, polysoaps, drug delivery agents, and microparticulate materials, whereas hydrophilic pectin can be utilized for the preparation of gelling and thickening agents.

An eco-friendly extraction method to obtain pectin from passion fruit rinds (Passiflora edulis sp.) and using subcritical water and pressurized natural deep eutectic solvents

This work evaluated the efficiency of Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) and Pressurized Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (P-NaDESs) under different temperatures (100, 120, 140 and 160 °C) in obtaining pectin from Passion Fruit Rinds (PFR) and its residual biomass (PFR - UAPLE), and compare the results with those of Conventional Extraction (CE). The highest pectin yields, 19.1 and 27.6 %, were achieved using P-NaDES (Citric Acid:Glucose:Water) at 120 °C for PFR and its PFR-UAPLE, respectively. Regarding the Degree of Esterification (DE), pectin obtained with SWE and CE had DE below 50 %, while with P-NaDES (Citric Acid: Glucose:Water), DE was above 50 %. Higher Molecular Weights (MW) (98 and 81 kDa) were obtained with SWE and P-NaDES from PFR compared to PFR-UAPLE and CE. Galacturonic acid was the most abundant (74 to 78 %) monosaccharide obtained by SWE. In terms of morphology, water extraction provided pectin with more uniform textures, whereas extraction with acidified mixtures led to more heterogeneous surfaces. Overall, comparing SWE and P-NaDES, the obtained pectins differed in terms of monomeric composition, MW and DE. These results indicate that pectins obtained by both methods can have different applications depending on their structural characteristics.

Physicochemical and functional properties of pulp and pectin from agro-waste of three Cucurbitaceae species

Cucurbita pepo L., Citrullus lanatus T. and Cucumis melo L. belong to the family Cucurbitaceae and are cultivated for their seeds. The fruit pulp and peel are discarded as agro-waste after seed removal. This study evaluated the physicochemical and functional properties of the pulp and pectin extracts from the Cucurbitaceae species. Proximate, antioxidant, total polyphenol and flavonoid contents were determined. The purity, structural and sugar constituents of the extracted pectin were analysed using spectrophotometric techniques (NMR, FTIR and LCMS). Results showed that the pulp wastes had high carbohydrate content (28.4 to 69.7%) and demonstrated high antioxidant activities (40 to 50%, 63 to 85% and 0.2 to 0.4 mg mL−1 for DPPH, ABTS and FRAP respectively). Cucurbita pepo L. had the highest pectin yield (13.9%), and the purity of the pectin extracts ranged from 60.4 to 75.2% for total carbohydrate and 3.3 to 4.4 % for protein. The pectin extracts showed structural similarities. LCMS fingerprints of the pectin extracts showed that the monosaccharides comprised of mannose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, xylose, arabinose and fucose. The polymers demonstrated high water absorption capacities (309 g/100 g to 604 g/100 g) and can be applied as thickeners in food systems.

Studi Kinetika Ekstraksi Pektin dari Kulit Buah Pisang Kepok

Pectin is one of the polysaccharides that located in plant cell walls along with cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose. The method for obtaining pectin is extraction. During the extraction process, there is reaction kinetic occur. This study aims to determine the extraction kinetics of kepok banana peel including reaction rate constants and activation energy with variations in extraction time. Secondary data that is processed are 1; 1,5; and 2 of pH extraction, 80oC and 90oC of temperature extraction, time extraction 70, 80, 90, and 100 minutes, and yield of pectin. The result showed that the value of the degradation constant (k2) is smaller than the value of the extraction constant (k1) on all variables. The highest Yemax is 41,88% that was found at pH 1,5; 90oC and 80 minutes of extraction times. The lowest value of activation energy for pectin formation (Ea1) is 17,812 kJ/mol and the highest value of activation energy for pectin degradation (Ea2) is 3,787 kJ/mol, both of which are found at pH 1,5. The optimum conditions for extracting pectin from kepok banana peel were at pH extraction 1,5 and 90oC of temperature extraction taking into account the values of k1, k2, Yemax, tmax, and activation energy.

Optimisation of Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Artocarpus integer Peel Pectin with Choline Chloride based Deep Eutectic Solvent

Extraction of pectin from natural resources using a biodegradable solvent is an alternative to wasteful and corrosive acidic extraction. Traditionally, attempts to extract pectin from biomass have resulted in low yields and a large consumption of corrosive solvents. Therefore, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) with deep eutectic solvents (DES) of choline chloride and malonic acid (ChCl:MA) at a mole ratio of 1:2 was used in this study. The objective of this study was to extract pectin from Artocarpus integer peels (AIP) and to optimise the extraction conditions in terms of the percentage of DES, solid-to-liquid ratio of AIP to DES, microwave power, and extraction time. The results showed that the pectin yield increased as the percentage of DES, solid-to-liquid ratio, power, and time increased. The extraction of pectin up to 30.17 % with MAE was optimised at a 1:50 ratio, 50 W, 4 min, and 5 % DES. These results indicate that the proposed MAE-DES technique is excellent for extracting pectin with high yield from AIP.

Comparative study on thermo-mechanical, structural and functional properties of pectin extracted from immature wasted apples and commercial pectin

Pectin yield of 22.22 ± 0.98 % (dry basis) was achieved from prematurely dropped Golden Delicious apples, having a light orange hue (hue value: 78.08 ± 0.04) and an overall color difference (ΔE) of 9.92 ± 0.01 compared to commercial pectin (CP). Extracted AP exhibited a lower equivalent weight (725.24 ± 29.73) and higher methoxy content (8.36 ± 0.28 %) in contrast to CP. However, a similar degree of esterification of 71.57 ± 0.79 and 70.55 ± 0.59 %, was observed in AP and CP respectively. Apple pectin demonstrated slight lower galacturonic acid (GalA) content of 68.10 ± 3.94 % in comparison to 72.31 ± 4.62 % of CP, which was further corroborated by reduced intensity in FTIR fingerprint region (912–1025 cm−1). Morphology revealed a sheet-like cloudy appearance indicating a significant presence of associated sugars whereas X-ray diffraction highlighted the highly amorphous nature of AP. AP and CP solutions (3–9 %) displayed a shear-thinning flow and viscoelastic behavior where the loss (G') moduli dominated over the storage moduli (G"). Owing to high degree of esterification, galacturonic acid content (>65 %) that aligns with commercial standards and viscoelastic behavior, the extracted AP holds promise for potential utilization in commercial applications. This study underscores the potential for sustainable utilization of prematurely dropped apples through pectin extraction, contributing to valorization of the wasted bioresource.

Valorization of walnut green husk (Juglans regia L.) through sequential electrohydrodynamic extraction of pectin and phenolics: Process optimization and multidimensional analysis

This study aimed to optimize the extraction of pectin and phenolics from walnut green husk using the electrohydrodynamic method (EHD) and assess its impact on the chemical structure and properties of pectin. A comparative analysis was conducted with acidified water as the conventional extraction method. The results revealed significant improvements under the optimal EHD conditions (36.8 min, 17.5 kV, 90 °C), leading to a remarkable increase of over 64 % in pectin yield and >20 % in total phenolic content in half the extraction time. Chemical analysis showed that pectin samples contain 1.4–1.7 % ash, 3.6–4.6 % protein, over 90 % carbohydrates, and a galacturonic acid content ranging from 67.7 to 68.2 g/g. Both extraction methods yielded pectin with a high methoxyl degree, comparable thermal stability, and amorphous structure. EHD treatment resulted in reduced molecular weight, degree of esterification, water-holding capacity, and emulsion stability of pectin while enhancing its solubility and emulsion capacity. In summary, EHD treatment significantly improved extraction yield and changed the functionality of pectin, particularly in terms of emulsion activity. This alteration should be considered when utilizing pectin for specific applications.

Effect of enzyme‐assisted acid extraction on citrus high‐methoxyl pectin riched in RG‐I: preparation, structure characterisation and physico‐chemical properties

SummaryThe properties of pectin extracted by enzyme‐assisted nitric acid (EAE‐N) and pectin extracted by enzyme‐assisted oxalic acid (EAE‐O) were analysed and compared with pectin extracted by nitric acid (AE‐N) and pectin extracted by oxalic acid (AE‐O) systematically. The yield of pectin obtained by the enzyme‐assisted acid method (23.73% ~ 25.60%) was significantly higher than that by acid extraction method (19.75% ~ 20.60%). Monosaccharide analyses demonstrated that the enzyme‐assisted acid method was able to attain more branched rhamnogalacturonan I (RG‐I) regions (36.59% ~ 42.06%) than using acid solely (31.01% ~ 34.58%). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT–IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) analyses indicated that there was no obvious difference in the characteristic structure of pectin. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) images revealed that EAE‐N and EAE‐O had more short side chains and cross‐link compared with AE‐N and AE‐O. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) shows that EAE‐N and EAE‐O have good thermal stability. All pectin samples showed a shear‐thinning fluid flow behaviour and an elastic gel‐like behaviour. The results suggested that enzyme‐assisted acid provided a viable alternative method for the extraction of pectin.

Pectic polysaccharides of black radish taproots: Extraction, structural characterization

The mixtures of starch and pectin were isolated by sequential extraction of the pulp and peel of black radish taproots Raphanus sativus L. with cold, hot and acidified water, solutions of ammonium oxalate, sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide. The polysaccharide fractions obtained with ammonium oxalate solutions from the pulp and peel of the taproots gave the highest yields. The pectin was the main polysaccharide component. The yield of pectin (calculated on dry matter) from the pulp was 9.5%, from the peel −10.5%. The polysaccharide fractions obtained from pulp with hot water and ammonium oxalate solutions were subjected to sequential enzymatic degradation by amyloglucosidase and polygalacturonase, followed by fractionation on DEAE-cellulose. NMR spectra showed that rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) and galacturonan (HG) regions are in structure of pectin. RG-I has unbranched structure, since there are no signals of 2,4-rhamnose residues in NMR spectra.

An Efficient and Recyclable Acid Catalyst (PolyE‐IL) for Production of Pectin from Citrus Peel Waste

AbstractCitrus fruit waste is a potential source for valorisation into pectin. In present manuscript a PolyE‐IL‐1 as an efficient acid catalyst has been integrated for fractionation of pectin from citrus fruit waste. The use of PolyE‐IL‐1 catalyst has specific advantages in term of high yield, ease of catalyst separation, recycle and reuse etc. The process optimization study was conducted to check the influence of catalyst concentration, temperature, time and substrate concentration etc., to obtain maximum yield of pectin. The intensified process yields 30 % pectin at 95 °C in 90 min in batch mode of operation. Moreover, batch reactor, ultrasound batch reactor and microwave batch reactor were compared to observe the influence of the mode of reactor operation. Various citrus waste feedstock (Orange, Sweet lime and Lemon) was tested and maximum yield of (32.52 %) pectin was obtained from Lemon peels. The catalyst recyclability study showed consistency in pectin yield (30 %) for five consecutive recycle runs. Thus, the use of an easily recyclable PolyE‐IL‐1 catalyst provides an efficient route to produce pectin from citrus fruit peel waste.

Novel edible films fabricated with HG-type pectin extracted from different types of hybrid citrus peels: Effects of pectin composition on film properties

This study investigated the valorization of novel HG-type hybrid citrus pectins derived from three cultivars: Setoka (ST), Kanpei (KP), and Shiranui (SH), and their application as packaging materials. The physicochemical properties of these pectins and their corresponding films were evaluated and compared to commercial citrus pectin. Significant variations were observed in pectin yield (18.15–24.12 %) and other physicochemical characteristics, such as degree of esterification (DE), degree of methoxylation (DM), and monosaccharide composition, among the different cultivars. All hybrid citrus pectins were classified as high-methoxy pectin types (66.67–72.89 %) with typical structural configurations like commercial citrus pectin. However, hybrid citrus pectin films exhibited superior physical properties, including higher mechanical strength, flexibility, and lower water solubility than commercial citrus pectin film, while maintaining similar transparency and moisture content. Additionally, the films displayed smooth and uniform surface morphology, confirming their excellent film-forming properties. Correlation analysis revealed that DE positively influenced mechanical properties (r = 1.0). Furthermore, the monosaccharide composition of pectins showed strong relationships (r = 0.8–1.0) with the film's mechanical and barrier properties. These findings highlight the potential of hybrid citrus pectin as potential packaging material, and the knowledge of the structure-function relationship obtained in this study could be useful for the tailored modification of citrus pectin-based packages.

Agroindustrial and food processing residues valorization for solid-state fermentation processes: A case for optimizing the co-production of hydrolytic enzymes

In the pursuit of sustainability, managing agro-industrial and food processing residues (AFR) efficiently is crucial. This study proposes a systematic approach to convert AFR into valuable products via solid-state fermentation (SSF). Using fungal enzyme production as a case study, this adaptable methodology suits any SSF bioprocess. Initially, AFR's physicochemical properties were evaluated to assess their feasible use as carbon sources and solid matrices for SSF. Then, five strains were screened for their capability to produce enzymes (Xylanase, X; pectinase, P; cellulase, C). Apple pomace (AP) and brewery spent grain (BSG) with Aspergillus sp. (strain G5) were selected. Subsequent steps involved a two-phase statistical approach, identifying critical factors and optimizing them. Process conditions were screened using a Plackett-Burman design, narrowing critical variables to three (BSG/AP, pH, humidity). Response Surface Methodology (Central Composite Design) further optimized these factors for co-synthesis of X, P, and C. The humidity had the most significant effect on the three responses. The optimum conditions depended on each enzyme and were further validated to maximize either X, P or C. The obtained extracts were used for pectin extraction from orange peels. The extract containing primarily xylanase (X = 582.39, P = 22.86, C = 26.10 U mL−1) showed major pectin yield recovery (12.33 ± 0.53%) and it was obtained using the optimal settings of BSG/AP (81/19), humidity (50.40%), and pH (4.58). The findings will enable adjusting process conditions to obtain enzymatic cocktails with a tailored composition for specific applications.

Moroccan Citrus clementina Peels: Optimization of Pectin Extraction and Determination of Chemical and Functional Properties.

Citrus peels are considered a rich source of valuable biomolecules. Pectin is a polymer of polysaccharide acid and is composed of galacturonic acid monosaccharides. In this study, response surface methodology was used to optimize pectin extraction from Citrus × clementina Hort. ex Tan. (Rutaceae) peels using citric acid as an extraction solvent. The effect of the parameters conditioning the extraction process and pectin yield (pH level, temperature, extraction time, solid/liquid ratio, and raw material particle size) was investigated using a Box-Behnken design. The quality of the extracted pectin was assessed both chemically (moisture, ash, protein, and carbohydrate content) and functionally (gelling power and emulsifying activity). According to the screening experiment, the pH level, temperature, and particle size were the main factors influencing the pectin yield. The adjusted mathematical model enabled us to plot response surfaces in order to determine the optimal extraction conditions. The highest production yield of pectin (26.6%) was obtained at the optimal conditions of pH = 1.5, temperature = 100 °C, and particle size = 0.1 mm for an extraction time of 30 min. Compared to the predicted value of 26.6%, the experimental extraction yield of C. clementina was about 21.4% of pectin. Concerning the functional properties, the extracted pectin had a high gelling power of 164 ° SAG and an emulsifying activity of 38.5%.