Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Yield Research Articles

[formula omitted] -catalyzed trans-esterification of brassica carinata seed oil for biodiesel production

Brassica carinata seed is a non-edible oil containing crop grown for oil-based product development like biodiesel synthesis. However, recently technical challenges such as availability of feedstock, type of catalyst, cost, and quality of biodiesel hindered the feasibility and utilization of biodiesel. Thus, this study addressed those problems under the production of fatty acid methyl ester through trans-esterification reaction in the presence of heterogeneous catalyst (CaO), and methanol alcohol from Ethiopian brassica carinata seed oil. The synergetic and antagonistic effects of selected parameters (temperature, methanol to oil molar ratio, and amount of catalyst) on the yield of FAME were analyzed. Box-Behnken response surface methodology statistical analysis was applied to examine the parametric interaction effect, and optimization of reaction conditions. Accordingly, 90 % of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield was achieved at the optimum value of 65 °C temperature, 14.85: 1 methanol to oil molar ratio, and 13.77 % catalyst load. The fuel properties of the resulted biodiesel were determined following standard procedures, and the results were within the standard limits (ASTM D6751). This implies that brassica carinata oil over heterogeneous catalyzed reaction medium under optimum reaction conditions provides higher biodiesel yield.

Cohesive phycoremediation of pyrene by freshwater microalgae Selenastrum sp. and biodiesel production and its assessment.

In this study, the freshwater microalgae Selenastrum sp. was assessed for the effective degradation of pyrene and simultaneous production of biodiesel from pyrene-tolerant biomass. The growth of algae was determined based on the cell dry weight, cell density, chlorophyll content, and biomass productivity under different pyrene concentrations. Further, lipids from pyrene tolerant culture were converted into biodiesel by acid-catalyzed transesterification, which was characterized for the total fatty acid profile by gas chromatography. Increased pyrene concentration revealed less biomass yield and productivity after 20days of treatment, indicating potent pyrene biodegradation by Selenastrum sp. Biomass yield was unaffected till the 20mg/L pyrene. A 95% of pyrene bioremediation was observed at 20days of culturing. Lipid accumulation of 22.14%, as evident from the estimation of the total lipid content, indicated a marginal increase in corroborating pyrene stress in the culture. Fatty acid methyl esters yield of 63.06% (% per 100g lipids) was noticed from the pyrene tolerant culture. Moreover, fatty acid profile analysis of biodiesel produced under 10mg/L and 20mg/L pyrene conditionshowed escalated levels of desirable fatty acids in Selenastrum sp., compared to the control. Further, Selenastrum sp. and other freshwater microalgae are catalogued for sustainable development goals attainment by 2030, as per the UNSDG (United Nations Sustainable Development Goals) agenda. Critical applications for the Selenastrum sp. in bioremediation of pyrene, along with biodiesel production, are enumerated for sustainableand renewable energy production and resource management.

A Novel PETG Microchannel Reactor for Microwave-Powered Biodiesel Production

Biodiesel stands at the forefront as a replacement for fossil diesel in compression ignition engines, particularly in the transportation sector where diesel engines are the primary movers. However, biodiesel production is hampered by poor heat and mass transfer during the transesterification reaction, leading to long production times and high costs due to inefficient energy utilisation. This study targets heat and mass transfer issues during the production of biodiesel via a synergic approach that combines microwave-assisted heating and microfluidics via a polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) microchannel reactor. The transesterification reaction of palm oil and methanol was investigated using a full factorial design of experiments (DOE) method. Biodiesel yield was quantified via gas chromatographic analysis, and the results were optimised using statistical analysis. Optical analysis of slug quantification within the microchannel revealed that small slugs, smaller than 1 mm, accelerated the transesterification reaction. The composite-optimised experimental results, aimed at minimising energy costs and environmental impacts while maximising fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield, indicate a reaction temperature of 50 °C, a catalyst loading of 1.0 wt.%, and a 3:1 methanol to oil molar ratio. Regression analysis revealed that the reaction temperature was statistically insignificant when utilising the PETG microchannel reactor. This key finding positively impacts biodiesel production as it relates to significantly reduced energy intensity, costs, and emissions. Overall, this research work paves a pathway toward an energy-efficient and sub-minute rapid transesterification reaction, highlighting the effectiveness of microwave heat delivery and effects of microfluidics via the PETG microchannel reactor in overcoming heat and mass transfer barriers in biodiesel production.

Nutrient and salinity stress induced biodiesel production from a green alga, Monoraphidium neglectum

The potential of a green alga as a versatile and sustainable feedstock for biodiesel production was assessed. Molecular identification revealed the alga to be Monoraphidium neglectum. Under diverse growth conditions, including nutrient deficiency and salinity stress, the microalga showed robust adaptability. Under nitrate deficiency (N-, the lipid content peaked (30.67 %), with a notable increase in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), reaching 50.72 % in the stressed sample. Additionally, the highest polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content (24.55 %) was observed at a salinity level of 0.12 M. At 0.01 M salinity, the highest total carbohydrate content was observed. A significant fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 85.08 % was obtained under nitrate deficiency (N-) emphasizing its biodiesel production potential. The as-obtained biodiesel exhibited low viscosity, superior low-temperature performance and enhanced oxidation stability rendering the alga as an ideal candidate for eco-friendly, sustainable biodiesel production.

Optimization of methyl ester synthesis using gas/liquid phase pulsed discharge plasma in a novel oscillatory slug flow reactor

In the present research, an innovative oscillatory slug flow reactor (OSFR) under the treatment of gas–liquid phase pulsed discharge plasma was developed for biodiesel production. The main goal was continuous production of high quality biodiesel at low temperature and pressure. Experimental tests were carried out under the influence of four main operating parameters including applied voltage, molar ratio, reactant flow rate, and catalyst concentration. The response surface method was employed to optimize experimental tests. The results showed that the proposed technology provided 94% production efficiency under the optimal conditions of voltage 19.4 kV, molar ratio 6.4, flow rate 2.7 ml/s, and catalyst 0.9 wt. %. According to the statistical analysis, increasing the applied voltage and reducing the flow rate have a strong effect on the Fatty Acid Methyl Ester yield, while the concentration of potassium hydroxide and methanol have less effect on the overall efficiency. In addition, the characteristics of the produced biodiesel were in accordance with ASTM D6751 standards. Surprisingly, the optimal energy consumption in this system was 95 kJ/l, which is more economically viable. In general, this study showed that the combined system of gas/liquid phase plasma in the OSFR reactor has a high synergistic potential for the transesterification reaction.

Synthesizing a transesterification catalyst via a condensation reaction and assessment of the mechanism using density functional theory

AbstractBACKGROUNDA solid acid (SPEI–EN–OHCMs) having dendritic –NH2 groups was prepared via oxidation of hydrothermal carbon microspheres (OHCMs) followed by a condensation reaction with the –NH2 groups of polyethyleneimine and sulfonation. The mechanism by which –COOH groups on the surfaces of OHCMs reacted with these –NH2 groups was assessed using density functional theory (DFT).RESULTActivation using a combination of 1‐(3‐dimethylaminopropyl)‐3‐ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and N‐hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) was found to promote the formation of amide bonds such that –NH2 groups were bonded to the microsphere surfaces. This effect provided more bonding sites for –SO3H groups. The DFT results indicated that the energy barrier on the potential energy surface in the presence of EDC and NHS was lowered by 18.1 kcal mol−1. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses also confirmed the introduction of –NH2 groups followed by –SO3H groups onto the surfaces of the OHCMs. The concentration of surface acid sites on SPEI–EN–OHCMs was found to be as high as 11.8 mmol g−1. Thermogravimetric data and elemental analysis results showed that the –SO3H groups on the SPEI–EN–OHCM surfaces were thermally stable below 180 °C.CONCLUSIONThe SPEI–EN–OHCMs catalyst was used to promote the transesterification reaction of waste frying oil with methanol. A trial with a methanol‐to‐oil molar ratio of 10:1 at 110 °C for 4 h gave a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 92.3%. After four reuses, an SPEI–EN–OHCMs specimen provided a FAME yield of 54.3%. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Maximizing the potential of commercial zinc stearate for one-pot esterification and transesterification for high-acidity biodiesel production

Meeting the growing demand for energy while combating the adverse effects of global warming remains challenging today, and biodiesel offers a potential solution to help mitigate the impact of global warming. In this scenario, our primary goal was to optimize biodiesel production from highly acidic soybean oil using a one-pot esterification and transesterification process, addressing the challenges associated with high-acidity substrates. To start, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) guaranteed us just one phase for each commercial catalyst, and we conducted catalytic experiments to select the most suitable Zn-based material for the process, choosing zinc stearate (ZnSt2) as the best candidate. Our study demonstrated that a nano-sized zinc oxide (ZnO) catalyst, which was anticipated to be the most suitable choice, did not exhibit optimal performance. Subsequently, a Full Factorial Design of Experiments (DOE) was employed to optimize reaction parameters, specifically, the reaction temperature and the oil-to-methanol (O:M) molar ratio. The results consistently showed that increased O:M ratio and temperature promoted enhanced fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) production and reduced acidity. Then, experiments were conducted to maximize FAME production and minimize free fatty acid (FFA) content. The results showed that increasing the catalyst concentration from 5 wt% to 10 wt% did not significantly impact FAME production or acidity reduction. Also, while increased methanol should theoretically enhance FAME production and reduce acidity, the results were inconsistent across all experiments. Excess methanol interfered with glycerol separation, leading to decreased FAME yield. Thus, this study underscores the complexity of biodiesel production and highlights the importance of selecting suitable catalysts and optimizing process parameters.

From Waste to Catalyst: Transforming Mussel Shells into a Green Solution for Biodiesel Production from Jatropha curcas Oil

This study introduces an innovative approach to sustainable biodiesel production using mussel shell-derived calcium oxide (CaO) as a catalyst for converting Jatropha curcas oil into biodiesel. By repurposing waste mussel shells, the research aims to provide an eco-friendly and cost-effective solution for environmentally responsible biodiesel production, aligning with global standards. The study involves characterizing the catalyst, optimizing reaction conditions, and achieving a remarkable 99.36% Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) yield, marking a significant step toward cleaner and more economically viable energy sources. Biodiesel, recognized for its lower emissions, is produced through transesterification using mussel shell-derived CaO as a sustainable catalyst. This research contributes to cleaner and economically viable energy sources, emphasizing the importance of sustainable energy solutions and responsible catalytic processes. This research bridges the gap between waste management, catalyst development, and sustainable energy production, contributing to the ongoing global shift towards cleaner and more economically viable energy sources.

Potential Heterogenous Catalyst from Pineapple waste for Biodiesel Production

Biodiesel is a viable alternative to petroleum-based fuels due to its potential to lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recently, the utilization of waste biomass materials for the production of fuels and other energy products has been explored. In this current study, a potential heterogeneous solid catalyst was obtained from pineapple waste peels and graphite oxide (GO). Its potential for transesterification in biodiesel production was investigated using the impregnation mass ratio of 1 GO: 3 pineapple waste. The methanol to coconut oil molar ratio of 18:1, impregnation temperature of 80 °C and H3PO4 activating agent were found to yield the highest fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 53.71%.

Preparation of Brönsted-Lewis dual acidic catalyst Ce-HPW-F and its simultaneous catalytic esterification and transesterification of oleic acid and castor oil with methanol to synthesize biodiesel

A series of Brönsted-Lewis dual acidic catalyst Ce(x)-HPW-F(x = 1/3, 2/3, 1, 4/3, x is the molar ratio of Ce to HPW) were synthesized by introducing Ce3+ and F- into 12-tungstophosphoric acid (H3PW12O40, HPW) with Keggin structure. The structure, morphology, valence state, elemental composition, acid site density and type of Ce-HPW-F catalyst were analyzed by FT-IR, XRD, BET, SEM, XPS, NH3-TPD, and Py-IR. The catalytic activities and stabilities of the obtained catalysts were studied in the esterification and transesterification reactions of oleic acid and castor oil (Simulated acidified oil, SAO). The Ce(1/3)-HPW-F has presented optimum catalytic activity. A yield of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) 93.0 % was obtained at the 18:1 methanol to SAO molar ratio, 4 wt% catalyst, 110°C reaction temperature and reaction time of 90 min. The high catalytic activity of Ce(1/3)-HPW-F could be attributed to the strong Brönsted and Lewis acidity. The Lewis acidity was generated from the partial exchange of Ce3+ with the proton (H+) in HPW and increased through the formation of Ce-F bond between the strongly electronegative F- and Ce3+. Meanwhile, in the highly polar medium (methanol), the binding force between O and H+ was reduced due to the negative charge dispersion of the outer oxygen in the phosphotungstic acid anion and the polarization of W=Od formed by the terminal O and W. This may lead to the stepwise dissociation of H+ in HPW that had not been exchanged by Ce3+. However, F- could form the hydrogen bond with H+ to avoid the occurrence of the above phenomenon. After reusing Ce(1/3)-HPW-F catalyst for four times, the total yield of FAME could still achieve more than 75 %.

Maintaining high‐triglyceride content and reducing free fatty acids in distillers corn oil: A catalyst‐free multivariate strategy

AbstractDistillers corn oil (DCO), a byproduct of corn ethanol production, offers an alternative glyceride source for biodiesel production. Nonetheless, its higher free fatty acids (FFA) content compared to other vegetable oils hampers its direct conversion into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) due to soap formation, catalysts' activity decreasing, and emulsions generation (thus reducing FAME yield), which compromise the quality and stability of the biodiesel produced. Thus, pretreatment steps such as esterification may reduce the FFA to mitigate these issues. In this context, by utilizing glycerine, a solution emerges: esterifying these high‐acidity oils to convert FFA into triglycerides (TAG) before transesterification. However, little is known about how integrated reaction conditions can affect the process in a catalyst‐free system. Thus, our study was guided by a clear‐cut objective: transforming DCO into a raw material ideally suited for biodiesel production, which involved a dramatic reduction in FFA content, reducing it from 18% to a mere 2% while preserving a high concentration of TAG. For that, we systematically employed a response surface methodology with a three‐factorial central composite design to investigate the complex interactions among key parameters: temperature, vacuum pressure, and the glycerol/oil mass ratio. Elevated temperatures and a 2:1 glycerol/oil mass ratio were beneficial for FFA reduction, increased TAG content, and improved oil color. Interaction analysis identified synergistic temperature and vacuum pressure effects on FFA reduction, TAG production, and photometric color index reduction, revealing optimal conditions. Hence, the statistical model highlights DCO as a viable oil for future transesterification processes, laying the foundation for an eco‐friendly and economically efficient biodiesel production network.

Application of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) in the statistical evaluation of biodiesel production from the neutral lipids of the Coelastrella-Nannochloropsis consortium

The paramount challenge in economically workable microalgal biodiesel production is the selection of a competent catalyst to improve the fatty acid methyl ester yield with desirable fatty acid composition. Though countless researchers have explored different homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts to improve the transesterification efficacy, achieving greater biodiesel production from the neutral lipids of the microalgal consortium using a statistical tool, response surface methodology is scarce. Thus, the present study applied Response surface methodology to statistically analyze the biodiesel production from the neutral lipids of the indigenous Coelastrella-Nannochloropsis consortium (CNC) on the way to commercial feasibility. Onset of the study, the neutral lipids and acid value of the CNC were determined to be 18.74% and 2.73%, respectively. The transesterification of the neutral lipids of CNC was optimized through the coded factors in the RSM for various reaction parameters as combined influence viz., (i) Catalyst dose: methanol volume, (ii) Catalyst dose: reaction time; (iii) Catalyst dose: reaction temperature, (iv) Time: temperature, (v) time: methanol volume, (vi) temperature: methanol volume. Based on the ANOVA, coefficient determination, 2% KOH, 2 h time, 70 °C temperature, and 9 mL methanol volume were ascertained to be optimal values to accomplish 92% biodiesel production. Further, the biodiesel has desirable palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids, with palmitic acid as the prevalent fatty acid contributing 16–18%. In addition, the tested fuel properties of CNC biodiesel satisfy international biodiesel standards.

Process optimization of one-step direct transesterification and dual-step extraction-transesterification of the Chlorococcum-Nannochloropsis consortium for biodiesel production

In the present study, the efficacy of one-step direct transesterification (OSDT) and Dual-step extraction-transesterification (DSET) of Chlorococcum sp., Nannochloropsis sp., and their consortium was evaluated for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield. Initially, the biomass yield and lipid content of the two strains and their consortium were estimated. Of the biomasses, the consortium showed a higher biomass yield of 1.41 g/L and lipid content of 30.2%, which is higher than the monocultures irrespective of the different biomass drying methods used. With regards to the FAME yield, OSDT and DSET have yielded almost similar quantities about 21 g/100g dried biomass. Of the different reaction conditions of OSDT tested, a higher FAME yield at 70–71% (based on lipid weight) was obtained at 75 °C reaction temperature, 3 h reaction time with a 2g sample size. Eventually, the fatty acid composition of consortium biomass revealed higher levels of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in the vicinity of 46 and 25%, respectively. Based on the results, it is concluded that OSDT is a promising method due to its low energy consumption, cost-effective and time-saving attributes for quality biodiesel production from the Chlorococcum-Nannochloropsis consortium.

Facile Production of Biodiesel from Candlenut Oil (<i>Aleurites moluccana</i> L.) Using Photocatalytic Method by Nano Sized-ZnO Photocatalytic Agent Synthesized via Polyol Method

Biodiesel production from non-edible oil is an alternative way to reduce edible oil dependency and reduce the competition for feed and food. Candlenut oil (Aleurites moluccana L.) is one of the non-edible oils which can be used as feedstock for biodiesel production since they have a high oil content. Herein, the biodiesel production from candlenut oil has been conducted using zinc oxide (ZnO) synthesized by the polyol method. Polyol methods facilitated the formation of ZnO nanoparticles with various shapes, including spherical, rod, and hexagonal. Besides, ZnO showed a mesoporous characteristic, facilitating the conversion of fat fatty acid to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) of 61%. Increasing ZnO dosage led to enhancing the FAME yield. Similarly, the FAME yield was also improved by increasing the reaction time. The results of esterification of candlenut oil and methanol yielded 70.76% FAME with 2% nano-ZnO polyol catalyst at 180 min reaction time at room temperature whilst being stirred constantly at 400 rpm. A good FAME conversion using ZnO at room temperature provides good information to produce biodiesel with a simple method. Apart from that, photocatalytic promoted transesterification at room temperature, which is beneficial for reducing energy consumption.

Evaluating nutrient limitation in co-culture of Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Rhodobacter sphaeroides

The influence of nitrogen deficiency on microalgae-bacteria co-culture has been studied mostly with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Photosynthetic bacteria (PSB), which are non-nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the impact of N deficiency on its co-culture with microalgae is unknown. In this study, Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Rhodobacter sphaeroides co-culture was cultivated photoheterotrophically with acetate. The impact of N starvation and different P supply levels on oil production were examined. When phosphorus was sufficient, N starvation increased the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) content from 21.7 % to 28.2 %, and also increased the FAME yield (g CODFAME/g CODAcetate) from 0.17 to 0.22. However, the biomass and FAME productivities decreased. Sufficient phosphorus was also essential for a high growth rate and FAME productivity. Deficiencies in either N or P led to a decrease in the proportion of unsaturated FAMEs. iTRAQ analysis indicated N starvation promoted oil accumulation by driving the carbon flow to fatty acid synthesis in microalgae from co-culture. This study improves the understanding of biomass and lipid production via microalgae-PSB co-culture in photoheterotrophic cultivation. The mechanism of interaction between microalgae and bacteria needs further study.

A liquefied ammonia method for extracting lipids from Nannochloropsis oculata without drying and cell disruption

Lipid extraction technology that avoids energy-consuming processes, such as drying and cell disruption, is needed for efficient biofuel production. Here, we propose a novel technique for lipid extraction directly from wet Nannochloropsis oculata using liquefied NH3, eliminating energy-consuming drying and cell-disruption steps. An experimental apparatus to distribute liquefied NH3 to the sample at 20 °C and 0.85 MPa was developed. At an NH3/sample ratio of 45 (wt./wt.), approximately 48.5 wt% of the sample was separated as a crude extract, with the removal of over 99 wt% of the water content. The elemental composition of the feedstock and crude extract did not indicate any increase in N levels. The total fatty acid methyl ester yields (10.5 % of dry-weight biomass) were comparable to those obtained using conventional methods. The crude extract contained valuable C12–C20 fatty acids, indicating that liquefied NH3 extraction is attractive for producing bioproducts from wet microalgae.

Optimization of thermal biofuel production from biomass using CaO-based catalyst through different algorithm-based machine learning approaches

Optimization of biofuel production from algal oil through utilizing a CaO-based catalyst was carried out in this study. The optimal point for the highest yield of the reactions was determined using machine learning. To implement the optimization task, and to make predictions, we used three different methods, including Quantile regression, Logistic regression, and Gradient Boosted Decision Trees. The regression problem includes the amount of Catalyst, Reaction time, and Methanol/oil as input features, and FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) yield is the single output. We tuned the boosted version of these models with their important hyper-parameters and selected their best combination. Then different standard metrics are employed to assess their performance of them. Considering R2 score, Quantile regression, Logistic regression, and Gradient Boosted Decision Trees have error rates of 0.934, 0.996, and 0.998, and with MAE, they have 1.94, 1.68, and 1.17 errors, respectively. Also, Considering MAPE 2.14×10-2, 1.89×10-2, and 1.29×10-2 values obtained. Gradient Boosting is selected as the most appropriate model finally. Furthermore, the optimal output value with the proposed approach is 97.50, with the input vector being (x1 = 153, x2 = 0.625, x3 = 20).

Immobilization of Candida catenulata cells by surface-loading of an amino-functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles and its application as the sustainable whole-cell biocatalyst for enzymatic biodiesel production

In this study, the intracellular lipases of Candida catenulata were examined as a whole-cell biocatalyst (WCB) of soybean oil transesterification and obtained a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 79.1%. To facilitate the biocatalyst recovery and improve its stability, the WCB was attached to magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles activated by a linear structure of polyethyleneimine (PEI) as the multi-amino-functionalized arm. The preparation procedure of the magnetic whole-cell biocatalysts (MWCBs) was optimized by considering the pH during immobilization (X1), the weight ratio of nanoparticles-to-cell (X2), and PEI concentration (X3) using the response surface methodology. The best optimal setting of the variables was determined at X1 of 6.1, X2 of 0.6, and X3 of 0.7 w% with the transesterification activity of 7.6 × 105 IU gbiocatalyst−1 gained a FAME yield of 78.4% after 3 h. The MWCBs showed an improvement in thermal stability where the optimal temperature was shifted from 34C to 38 °C and the deactivation energy was increased from 183.9 kJ mol−1 and 223.6 kJ mol−1 after the immobilization. The MWCBs displayed satisfactory sustainability in the repeated transesterification experiments and maintained 87.3% of the original activity after 10 cycles which was higher than the bare-WCB system with a recovery of 57.4%.

Sulfonic acid-type hydrothermal carbon microspheres as stable, efficient catalysts for transesterification reactions

With the aim of preparing a sulfonic acid-type solid acid catalyst having a high density of acid sites and excellent stability, this work synthesized sulfonic acid bowl-shaped hydrothermal carbon microspheres (SA-OBHCs), using amine groups as the primary sulfonic acid bonding sites. This material was synthesized via a three-step functionalization process comprising the oxidation, amidation and sulfonation of BHCs. The extent to which chlorosulfonic acid reacted with amine groups in diethylenetriamine molecules on microsphere surfaces was also investigated using density functional theory calculations. These calculations showed that the substitution reaction of primary amines proceeded less readily than that of secondary amines but provided a more stable product. The surface acid density of the SA-OBHCs was as high as 11.2 mmol·g−1 and the –SO3H groups on the SA-OBHCs were found to be thermally stable up to 200 °C. These SA-OBHCs were subsequently used to catalyze the synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) from a waste frying oil model compound and methanol. Reactions performed using a methanol/oil molar ratio of 20:1 at 140 °C for 3 h gave a FAMEs yield of 93.4 %. After four reuses, an SA-OBHCs specimen provided a FAMEs yield of 77.5 %, demonstrating the significant stability of this material.

Biodiesel production using novel solvent from agricultural crop Cannabis sativa L. and Sapium sebiferum L. and their fuel properties characterisation using blends

Biodiesel to replace fossil diesel demand by 10–20 % has made it meet sustainability goals worldwide. Various feedstocks like edible and non-edible have been experimented with for biodiesel production and are still of research interest, but the biodiesel production processes are time-consuming and energy intensive. In the present study, non-edible feed, namely Cannabis Sativa L. and Sapium sebiferum L., was explored and the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) was synthesised at ambient temperature using a novel solvent with FAME yield of 98.7 and 97.8 %, respectively. The three plausible mechanisms and technical innovation of novel solvent were also discussed. All the physicochemical properties for the produced biodiesel and prepared biodiesels blends were found as per ASTM/BIS specifications and corroborated by spectroscopic and analytical techniques. The characteristic ester peak (C=O) at 1740 cm−1 and methoxy (O-CH3) at 1485 cm−1 using FTIR confirmed the successful biodiesel production.