Yellow Pea Flour Research Articles

Alteration of phenolics and antioxidant capacity of gluten-free bread by yellow pea flour addition and sourdough fermentation

Gluten-free bread is often characterised by poor nutritional value and bioactive profile. Legume flours have potential for its enrichment, but the effect of sourdough fermentation of legume matrices on the phenolics and antioxidant capacity of bread is scarcely investigated. Thus, this study aimed to determine the effect of partial replacement (25%) of wholemeal rice flour with yellow pea flour on phenolics and antioxidant capacity of gluten-free sourdough and bread. Sourdough was fermented with Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 20016, Lactobacillus fermentum DSM 20052 or Lactobacillus brevis DSM 20054. Free phenolic acids (protocatechuic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic and ferulic), lactic and acetic acid content was determined by HPLC, and free total phenolic content (TPC), DPPH and FRAP antioxidant capacity by spectrophotometric methods.After 16 h of fermentation, total titrable acidity of the sourdough ranged from 11.85 to 18.97 mL of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide, with lactic/acetic acid content of 2.65–9.41. Yellow pea flour addition substantially increased protocatechuic acid and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid content, but decreased the antioxidant capacity of unfermented dough and bread. Depending on the starter, the sourdough fermentation of pea-rice flour blend and its addition to bread increased the phenolic acid content, TPC and antioxidant capacity. Bread with yellow pea flour and L. brevis sourdough showed the highest improvement in phenolic acid content (40%), TPC (44%) and antioxidant capacity (30% DPPH, 50% FRAP) compared to bread without added sourdough. The study demonstrates the importance of using sourdough fermentation with a carefully selected starter when adding pea flour to gluten-free bread to ensure high antioxidant potential.

Comprehensive Understanding of Roller Milling on the Physicochemical Properties of Red Lentil and Yellow Pea Flours

The development of convenience foods by incorporating nutrient-rich pulses such as peas and lentils will tremendously alter the future of pulse and cereal industries. However, these pulses should be size-reduced before being incorporated into many food products. Therefore, an attempt was made to adapt roller mill settings to produce de-husked yellow pea and red lentil flours. The milling flowsheets unique to yellow peas and red lentils were developed in producing small, medium, and large flours with maximum yield and flour quality. This study also investigated the differences in chemical composition, physical characteristics, and particle size distributions of the resultant six flour fractions. The kernel dimensions and physicochemical properties of the whole yellow pea and red lentils were also studied to develop customized mill settings. Overall, the mill settings had a significant effect on the physical properties of different particle-sized flours. The geometric mean diameters of different particle-sized red lentil flours were 56.05 μm (small), 67.01 μm (medium), and 97.17 μm (large), while for yellow pea flours they were 41.38 μm (small), 60.81 μm (medium), and 98.31 μm (large). The particle size distribution of all the flour types showed a bimodal distribution, except for the small-sized yellow pea flour. For both the pulse types, slightly more than 50% flour was approximately sizing 50 μm, 75 μm, and 100 μm for small, medium, and large settings, respectively. The chemical composition of the flour types remained practically the same for different-sized flours, fulfilling the objective of this current study. The damaged starch values for red lentil and yellow pea flour types increased with a decrease in flour particle size. Based on the Hausner’s ratios, the flowability of large-sized flour of red lentils could be described as passable; however, all the remaining five flour types were indicated as either poor or very poor. The findings of this study assist the millers to adapt yellow pea and red lentil milling technologies with minor modifications to the existing facilities. The study also helps in boosting the production of various baking products using pulse and wheat flour blends to enhance their nutritional quality.

Effect of Pulse Type and Substitution Level on Dough Rheology and Bread Quality of Whole Wheat-Based Composite Flours

Pulse flours are commonly added to food products to improve the functional properties, nutritional profiles, product quality and health benefits. This study aimed at assessing the effects of the partial replacement (0–25%) of whole wheat flour with diversified whole pulse flours (yellow pea, green pea, red lentil, and chickpea) on dough properties and bread quality. The pulse flours had higher protein contents and ash, but lower moisture content and larger average particle size, compared to whole wheat flour. Increasing the substitution level of pulse flours decreased dough viscosity, stability, development time and bread volume, and accelerated bread retrogradation. The incorporation of 5% yellow pea flour led to a similar bread quality as that with only whole wheat flour. Among all the tested pulse flours, the composite flour containing yellow pea flour or chickpea flour had overall better potential for bread making by providing good dough handling properties and product quality. This study will benefit the development of more nutritious food products by combining cereal and pulse ingredients.

Effect of Revtech thermal processing on volatile organic compounds and chemical characteristics of split yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.) flour.

Yellow pea (Pisumsativum L.) is an economically rich source of nutrients with health-promoting effects. However, the consumption of pea ingredients is minimal due to their off-flavor characteristics. The present study investigated the effect of Revtech heat treatment on the chemical profile and volatile compounds in split yellow pea flour. Revtech treatment (RT) was applied at 140°C with a residence time of 4 min in dry condition (RT 0%) and in the presence of 10% steam (RT 10%). Both thermal treatments resulted in a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in lipoxygenase activity and the concentration of key beany-related odors such as heptanal, (E)-2-heptenal, 1-octen-3-ol, octanal, and (E)-2-octenal. In addition, RT 10% resulted in a significant reduction in pentanal, 1-penten-3-ol, hexanal, and 1-hexanol compared to untreated flour. The content of known precursors of lipoxygenase such as linoleic and linolenic acids was found in higher concentrations in heat-treated flours, indicating the efficacy of Revtech technology in minimizing the degradation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. No significant changes in the amino acid composition or the 29 selected phenolic compounds in pea flours were observed with Revtech processing except for two compounds, caffeic acid and gallocatechin, which were found at higher concentrations in RT 0%. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Thermal processing of split yellow pea flours at 140°C using Revtech technology successfully decreased the concentrations of volatile compounds responsible for beany off-flavor while improving the nutritional quality of studied yellow pea flours. These results provide valuable information to the food industry for developing novel pulse-based products with enhanced sensory characteristics.

Oxidizing agent‐assisted extrusion cooking of yellow peas and the techno‐functionality of the resulting extrudate flours

To enhance pulse flour techno-functionality, different oxidizing agents were used during extrusion cooking. Benzoyl peroxide (BP) (45 mg/kg), azodicarbonamide (ADA) (150 mg/kg), and pressurized air (injection pressures of 200 and 400 kPa) were employed at three different extrusion temperature profiles, and their effects on techno-functional quality of resulting yellow pea (YP) extrudate flours were investigated. Oxidizing agents and extrusion temperature impacted water solubility (WS), water-binding capacity, emulsion capacity (EC), emulsion stability (ES), and pasting properties of YP extrudate flours. Oxidizing agent effects were extrusion temperature-dependent. At a die temperature of 95℃, BP and ADA addition significantly increased EC and ES, while air injection at 400 kPa increased WS, ES, cold, and trough viscosities. Manipulation of pulse flour techno-functionality through oxidizing agent-assisted extrusion has proven to be an effective approach to manufacture novel ingredients that can be used in a wide variety of foods. Practical applications High protein and fiber content of pulses make them an attractive ingredient for new product development strategies in the food industry. Nevertheless, there can be significant quality challenges when using pulses in food products due to their less than ideal techno-functional properties which lead to quality defects in reformulated products. Extrusion cooking has been employed to modify pulse flours and to develop pulse-based ingredients with superior techno-functionality. The use of oxidizing agents during extrusion cooking can be another means of addressing these techno-functionality issues, without the need of additional equipment for the industry. In this study, depending on the oxidizer type and extrusion temperature, oxidizing agent-assisted extrusion cooking has proven to improve several techno-functional quality attributes of yellow pea flour. The same technology can be employed to improve the techno-functionality of different pulse flours.

Incorporation of yellow pea flour into white pan bread

AbstractBackground and objectivesWith growing trends in health‐conscious consumers, pea flour has been investigated for incorporation into baked products. The objective of this study was to understand the effect of pea flour incorporation (0, 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20%) milled with a Miag Multomat mill into white pan bread. Bread and sensory quality were assessed.FindingsBread loaf volume was reduced with higher levels of pea flour incorporation. Texture, specific volume, and height were not significantly different between treatments until ≥10% w/w pea flour addition. Bread crust color was not affected by pea flour incorporation. Bread crumb color was redder, more yellow and slightly darker with pea flour addition. Crumb gas cell structure was indicative of gas cell coalescence with larger cells and thicker cell walls. Bread quality was assessed with a consumer sensory panel comprised of 60 individuals. Consumers could perceive differences between the control and pea flour containing breads. However, there were no major differences in overall acceptability between pea flour containing treatments. Even with 20% pea flour addition, pea flour can be used in conjunction with wheat to make a sensorially acceptable bread.ConclusionsA high‐quality pea flour containing wheat bread can be made. At 20% pea flour incorporation, quality as defined by instrumental analyses decreases, while sensory analysis showed few differences between treatments.Significance and noveltyNutrient dense pea flour can be incorporated into wheat breads at a level of 20% with little effect on consumer acceptance.

Physicochemical property changes and aroma differences of fermented yellow pea flours: role of Lactobacilli and fermentation time.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical properties and aroma differences of yellow pea flours fermented by five lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains including two Lactiplantibacillus, two Lactobacillus, and one Lacticaseibacillus with different fermentation time. The cell population and the pH of pea flour slurry, as well as the proximate chemical composition, amino acids, thermal and pasting properties, surface morphology, and aromatic differences of fermented flours were characterized. The cell population of all strains except for Lactobacillus helveticus was observed to reach above 107 CFU mL-1 after 24 h of fermentation. The fermentation with Lactobacilli resulted in the increase of amino acids and ash contents, and the reduction of fat content. Rapid viscosity analysis indicated that short time (18 h) fermentation with L. helveticus drastically improved the pasting properties of the flours by facilitating starch granule expansion. The aromatic compounds of the fermented yellow pea flours were highly reliant on the strains and fermentation time. The untargeted metabolomics analysis with the aid of multivariate data analysis can discriminate the aroma differences among the fermented yellow pea flours. L. acidophilus fermentation led to the production of three aromatic compounds which may contribute to an improved aromatic profile.

Toward a comprehensive understanding of ultracentrifugal milling on the physicochemical properties and aromatic profile of yellow pea flour

Yellow pea (Pisum sativum L., YP) grain is generally milled into flour for further processing or direct consumption. However, the comprehensive relationship between milling configurations and YP flour properties remains unclear. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of configurations (screen aperture size and rotor speed) of ultracentrifugal mill on the physicochemical properties and aromatic profiles of YP flours. Starch damage, morphology, particle size distribution, pasting, thermal property, and aromatic profiles of YP flours were studied. Results show that starch damage increased significantly as the screen aperture size decreased. The YP flour produced with a 500 µm aperture screen had the most stable pasting and thermal properties. With untargeted metabolomic approaches, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol could potentially be applied as an aroma maker to distinguish if an excessive milling or inappropriate configurations of ultracentrifugal mill are applied. This work has furnished fundamentals for the milling and application of YP flour.

Effects of ethanol modified supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and particle size on the physical, chemical, and functional properties of yellow pea flour

AbstractBackground and objectivesSupercritical carbon dioxide + ethanol (SC‐CO2 + EtOH) extraction was previously found to improve organoleptic attributes of yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.) flour. However, the impact of this extraction, in combination with different flour particle sizes, on physical, chemical, and functional properties of yellow pea flour was not established and is thus the focus of this study.FindingsThe interaction effect between SC‐CO2 + EtOH extraction and yellow pea flour particle size lead to differences in physical, chemical, and functional properties. Extraction caused reductions in most chemical constituents and a lowering of functionality test values such as pasting viscosities. Variable impacts of particle size on flour composition and functionality were observed.ConclusionThe impacts of particle size on functionality were anticipated. The degree of differences in functionality between extracted and nonextracted yellow pea flour was not anticipated. Scanning electron micrographs supported protein‐rich particle adherence to the surface of starch granules of extracted pea flour. This observed modification may be responsible for differences in functionality between extracted and nonextracted flours.Significance and noveltyThe SC‐CO2 + EtOH extraction method combined with particle size can be an effective method to modify the functionality of yellow pea flour and ultimately diversifying its application in food systems.

Physical and technofunctional properties of yellow pea flour and bread crumb mixtures processed with low moisture extrusion cooking.

The potential utilization of yellow pea flour and bread crumb blends was investigated to generate nutritionally-dense extruded products with superior physical and/or technofunctional properties. Yellow pea flour mixed with bread crumb at different ratios were processed using low-moisture twin-screw extrusion cooking conditions to examine the effect of blending ratios and feed moisture contents on physical (that is, radial expansion index, extrudate density, microstructure, texture, and color) and technofunctional (that is, emulsifying capacity, emulsifying stability, water solubility [WS], water binding capacity [WBC], oil binding capacity [OBC], and pasting) properties of the final products. Compared to the two feed materials alone, samples produced with yellow pea flour and bread crumb blends showed lower hardness and higher crispiness. Moisture content (12% to 18%) was found to significantly affect physical and technofunctional properties. With an increase in feed moisture content from 12% to 18%, the WBC of the extrudates increased while the WS decreased. Extrudates produced with higher feed moisture content, and higher yellow pea flour content had higher setback viscosity. Among all formulas and feed moisture contents studied, extrudates produced with 50% yellow pea flour and 50% bread crumb at 12% feed moisture content had the highest radial expansion and bigger cells with thinner cell walls. This study has shown that incorporation of yellow pea flour and bread crumb in extrusion cooking process could be used to develop nutritionally-dense foods with improved physical and technofunctional properties.

Yellow pea flour and protein isolate as sources of antioxidant peptides after simulated gastrointestinal digestion

AbstractAlthough peas are widely consumed legumes throughout the world, the bioactivity of the peptides released by the gastrointestinal digestion has not been sufficiently studied so far. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the potential of flours and protein isolates obtained from two varieties of yellow peas as sources of antioxidant peptides. Flours and protein isolates were prepared and submitted to a simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Protein hydrolysis degree (TNBS method) and protein solubility (in phosphate buffer saline, pH = 7.4) values were independent on the starting material. Antioxidant activity measured by oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and hydroxyl radical averting capacity (HORAC) showed no differences between varieties. A lower activity was registered for protein isolates with respect to flours in the case of HORAC, which could be associated with a loss of molecules with molecular masses lower than 43 kDa in the protein isolates. A significant increase in activities was evidenced by both methods after gastrointestinal digestion, except in the case of HORAC activity of flours. Digested from protein isolates presented a greater ratio of molecules smaller than 1.4 kDa and a lower ratio of those larger than 6.5 kDa with respect to digested flours, according to electrophoresis and gel filtration chromatography studies. Results suggested that the presence of other components or/and the initial state of proteins would affect proteolytic attack of digestive enzymes. Both, pea flours and protein isolates, present interesting potential as antioxidants food ingredients.

Properties and bread‐baking performance of wheat flour composited with germinated pulse flours

AbstractBackground and objectivesGermination of pulse seeds can effectively improve the functional and nutritional properties of resultant flours for broader food applications to deliver multiple health benefits. However, there is a lack of understanding on the performance of germinated pulse flours in bakery goods, particularly in bread. This study aimed to determine the flour quality, dough properties, and baking performance of composite flours prepared by blending raw or germinated pulse flours and hard wheat flour at 10:90 and 20:80 ratios (w/w).FindingsThe incorporation of both raw and germinated yellow pea and faba bean flours reduced the starch level but increased the protein level of the flours. The inclusion of the pulse flours progressively decreased the pasting viscosities of the composite flours—with more noticeable changes being observed with the germinated samples, corresponding well with the decreases in their falling numbers. The incorporation of the raw and germinated pulse flours diminished the solvent retention capacity with 5% lactic acid and gluten performance index, and thus, the generated doughs showed shortened dough development time, poorer dough stability, and less elastic structure than the control. The breads baked from the wheat–pulse flour blends—despite the addition of 2% wheat gluten—exhibited decreased loaf volumes and smaller numbers of cells per slice but greater crumb firmness, and the use of 20% germinated pulse flours showed the most significant impact.ConclusionsThe inclusion of germinated yellow pea and faba bean flours into hard wheat flour weakened the dough structure and caused poorer bread‐baking performance.Significance and noveltyThe findings from this research greatly advanced our understanding of the roles that germinated pulse flours played in the flour and dough systems after being composited with hard wheat flour as well as their influence on the quality attributes of the baked bread products.

Changes in odor characteristics of pulse protein isolates from germinated chickpea, lentil, and yellow pea: Role of lipoxygenase and free radicals

In this study, pulse protein isolates (PPIs) were extracted from 0, 1, 3, and 5 days germinated chickpea, lentil, and yellow pea flours by alkaline extraction–isoelectric precipitation method. The germination time had negligible impact on the proximate composition of PPIs. In total, 67 volatiles in PPIs were identified via HS-SPME–GC–MS/O. Among all the identified volatile components, seven of them, including hexanal (11), (E)-2-octen-1-ol (7), (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal (17), 3-octen-2-one (33), 3,5-octadien-2-one (34), 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine (56), and 2-methoxy-3-(1-methylpropyl)pyrazine (57), contributed to the beany-related odor of PPIs but much less than that in raw flours. However, the overall beany-related odor of PPIs increased when the germination time exceeded 1 day. Both the activity of lipoxygenase and the free radical populations in PPIs were positively related to the overall beany-related odor. Our findings are crucial for the preparation of germinated pulse proteins with improved functionality but without increasing undesirable odor.

Sensory and Physical Characteristics of Pan Bread Fortified with Thermally Treated Split Yellow Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Flour.

Pulses, including peas, are a good source of protein, dietary fiber, folic acid, and iron and are reported to reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. However, pulse ingredients present a known challenge as they exhibit a grassy/beany off-flavor. Heat treatment in some cases can decrease this off-flavor. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of substitution of 20% split yellow pea (SYP) flour treated by Revtech thermal processing at 140°C with 10% steam (RT10%) and without steam (RT0%) for wheat flour in bread on the sensory attributes, acceptability, nutrient composition, firmness, color, and pH. RT10% was more acceptable overall than bread with untreated pea flour (USYP) or RT0% as assessed by 110 consumers. Sensory attributes were defined and measured on 15-cm line scales by an 11 member trained panel. Attributes associated with RT10% included wheaty, sweet, and yeast aromas and wheaty flavor, whereas attributes associated with USYP and RT0% were pea and nutty aroma and flavor. Although firmness and dryness were higher in RT10%, the acceptability of the bread texture was not affected. This sample contained significantly higher protein and lower carbohydrate than the wheat sample. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Revtech (RT), a novel thermal process, when applied at 140°C with steam to split yellow pea (SYP) flour successfully increased the acceptability of white pan bread fortified at 20% compared to bread fortified with RT 140°C with no steam, and untreated SYP flours. This could be due to its association with wheaty aroma and flavor attributes rather than the pea aroma and flavor attributes of the other two breads.

Effect of roasting as a premilling treatment on the functional and bread baking properties of whole yellow pea flour

AbstractBackground and objectivesThere is a growing global interest in partially replacing wheat flour with pulse flours in foods, including bread. However, undesirable flavors associated with pulse flours, especially yellow pea flour, have limited their use in foods. Pretreating pulses prior to milling offers a possible solution for improving the flavor of pulse flours. The objective of this research was to examine the effect of oven roasting and Revtech roasting (with and without steam) on the compositional, functional, and bread baking properties of whole yellow peas.FindingsRegardless of the roasting method used, a roasting temperature of 120°C resulted in flours that retained good functionality and bread baking properties with less detrimental changes in flour color. Bread made with peas roasted at 120°C also had reduced aroma and flavor properties compared to bread made with untreated peas.ConclusionsThe strong aroma and flavor properties of yellow peas can be reduced by pretreating the peas prior to milling using conventional oven roasting and Revtech roasting. By selecting the appropriate roasting temperature, flour functionality for bread baking can be maintained.Significance and noveltyRoasting is a useful premilling treatment for yellow peas. Reducing the off‐flavors associated with pulses while maintaining flour functionality will allow for greater use of pulse flours in formulating foods.

Flavor modification of yellow pea flour using supercritical carbon dioxide + ethanol extraction and response surface methodology

Reduction of volatile aroma compounds that are the source of undesirable flavor is crucial for quality, acceptability, and marketability of products made with pea (Pisum sativum L.) flour. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction was applicable for flavor modification of pea flour. Percentage ethanol, temperature, and pressure were optimized using a central composite rotatable design under response surface methodology. The minimum total volatile content (0.55 μg/g) was obtained significantly (p < 0.05) under optimum conditions, which were ethanol (22%), temperature (86oC), and pressure (42.71 MPa). Furthermore, flour color was lighter when processed using at optimum conditions. Through the response surface model, only ethanol, temperature, and quadratic term of ethanol were significant (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis revealed total volatile content, sensory attributes, and color values were highly interrelated. The data support supercritical carbon dioxide extraction as a viable method for removal of undesirable volatiles from pulse flour.

Production of biscuits by substitution with different ratios of yellow pea flour

Abstract To promote the commercialization of yellow pea flour (YPF) due to its nutritional benefits. Four biscuits with different YPF ratio (10%–50%) were conducted to explore the optimal addition percentage. The effects of YPF on the rheological and baking performance of biscuits were performed. The results showed that the substitution ratio of YPF and milling methods had a critical impact on the rheological properties of dough. The dough stability decreased gradually while a softening degree increased with YPF ratio increased. In a term of biscuits, the dimensions of length (L), width (W), thickness (T) and color (L*) of biscuits reduced as YPF addition ratio increased, while colors (a* and b*) and hardness apparently increased. In addition, milling methods had a great influence on the texture and sensory evaluation of four biscuits. The dimensions and color parameters of biscuits from fine flours were larger than that from coarse flours, whereas hardness from fine flours was relatively softer, indicating flour with fine particle size could accelerate the extension and expansion of dough network, and improve Maillard reaction during baking. The highest sensory score for short and tough biscuits was obtained given at YPF ratio of 30% without compromising the qualities of biscuits.

Effect of dry and steam heating on the functional and bread baking properties of yellow pea and navy bean flours

AbstractBackground and objectivesAlthough there is growing interest in partially replacing wheat flour with pulse flours in bread, the flavor of pulse flours can limit their use. Heat treating pulse flours, with and without the addition of steam, was examined to determine whether the flavor of split yellow pea flour (SYPF) and whole navy bean flour (WNBF) could be improved without altering flour functionality and bread baking properties.FindingsSignificant temperature × steam interactions were found for most flour parameters including pasting properties, water absorption capacity (WAC), starch damage, and color. Protein, starch, and flour particle size were altered as were pasting and farinograph properties of the pulse/wheat flour blends. Differences in specific volume, color, and C‐cell properties were more evident in the breads made with the treated WNBFs likely due to the different bread formulation used and the presence of hull in the flour.ConclusionsProcessing the SYPF and the WNBF at 120 and 140°C with steam improved the aroma and flavor of the bread while maintaining good flour functionality and bread baking properties.Significance and noveltyHeating treating pulse flours with the addition of steam successfully reduced the objectionable aroma and flavor characteristics associated with SYPF and WNBF. Eliminating undesirable aroma and flavor properties provides a greater opportunity for the inclusion of pulse flours in foods to enhance their nutritional properties.

Evaluation of the behaviour of unripe banana flour with non-conventional flours in the production of gluten-free bread.

Gluten-free breads were developed by incorporating unripe banana flour in a blend of alternative flour/cassava starch, 45/50. A factorial design was applied to determine the simultaneous effect of percentage of unripe banana flour (2, 8, 15%) and the type of alternative flour (quinoa, oyster mushroom, yellow pea and lentil flour) on structural and colour properties of bread. Principal component analysis was used to evaluate the behaviour of the formulations from a comprehensive perspective. Three formulations, denoted as P8 (pea + 8% unripe banana flour), Q15 (quinoa + 15% unripe banana flour) and L15 (lentil + 15% unripe banana flour) exhibited the closest profiles to reference (wheat bread). Breads with oyster mushroom flour showed a profile significantly different from the rest of formulations. The interactions among the factors were significant for all studied properties and showed that the unripe banana flour fortification did not lead to proportional responses on the bread properties, but the behaviour of unripe banana flour in breadmaking relied on the percentage and the type of alternative flour used. The P8, Q15 and L15 exhibited high fibre content and carbohydrate content lower than the reference. In addition, P8 formulation can be classified as intermediate glycaemic index.

Effect of premilling treatments on the functional and bread‐baking properties of whole yellow pea flour using micronization and pregermination

AbstractBackground and objectivesThere is interest in partially replacing wheat flour with pulse flours in bread. However, flavor of pulse flours may be detrimental to the final product. Processing pulses prior to milling, using micronization and pregermination (early seed germination without radicle emergence), was investigated as a way to improve the flavor of yellow pea flour while maintaining or improving flour functionality.FindingsMicronization and pregermination of peas prior to milling resulted in changes to flour particle size, color, and compositional and functional properties of the flours. Peas tempered to 18%–20% and micronized to 105–110°C produced a flour that was similar in baking properties to the flour milled from untreated peas with the exception of crumb firmness and aroma and flavor of the bread. All bread made from micronized peas tended to have reduced crumb firmness and improved aroma and flavor properties compared to bread made with untreated peas. Results for the pregerminated peas showed that the flour had higher starch damage and WAC and lower peak and final viscosities compared to the flour milled from untreated peas. Bread baked from pregerminated peas had lower bread quality in terms of bread scores, volume, crumb color, and C‐cell properties, but the bread had reduced crumb firmness and improved aroma and flavor properties, compared to bread made with untreated peas.ConclusionsBoth micronization and pregermination were suitable premilling treatments for yellow peas. Pregermination, however, warrants additional research to determine whether flour and baking properties can be improved.Significance and noveltyPretreating yellow peas using either micronization or pergermination prior to milling were successful in reducing undesirable flavors associated with pea flour. Depending on the treatment and conditions used, flour functionality and bread‐baking properties were maintained.