Yellow Pea Flour Research Articles

Characterization, Bioaccesibility and Antioxidant Activities of Phenolic Compounds Recovered from Yellow pea (Pisum sativum) Flour and Protein Isolate.

This study focused on studying the bioaccesible phenolic compounds (PCs) from yellow pea flour (F) and protein isolate (I). Total phenolic contents (TPC), PCs composition and antioxidant activities were analysed in ethanol 60% extracts obtained by applying ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE, 15min/40% amplitude). The preparation of I under alkaline conditions and the elimination of some soluble components at lower pH produced a change of PCs profile and antioxidant activity. After simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGID) of both ingredients to obtain the digests FD and ID, notable changes in the PCs concentration and profiles could be demonstrated. FD presented a higher ORAC activity than ID (IC50 = 0.022 and 0.039mg GAE/g dm, respectively), but lower ABTS•+ activity (IC50 = 0.8 and 0.3mg GAE/g dm, respectively). After treatment with cholestyramine of extracts from FD and ID in order to eliminate bile salts and obtain the bioaccesible fractions FDb and IDb, ROS scavenging in H2O2-induced Caco2-TC7 cells was evaluated, registering a greater activity for ID respect to FD (IC50 = 0.042 and 0.017mg GAE/mL, respectively). These activities could be attributed to the major bioaccesible PCs: OH-tyrosol, polydatin, trans-resveratrol, rutin, (-)-epicatechin and (-)-gallocatechin gallate for FD; syringic (the most concentrated) and ellagic acids, trans-resveratrol, and (-)-gallocatechin gallate for ID, but probably other compounds such as peptides or amino acids can also contribute.

Legume Fortified Instant Noodles: Optimization of Product Formulation and Processing Parameters using Response Surface Methodology

Cereal-pulses-based fortification has been attempted to improve the protein and dietary fibre content of instant noodles without altering the overall acceptability. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to optimize the process parameters and level of ingredients for manufacturing instant noodles. The effect of maize flour and split yellow pea flour fortification (6-18% each), the addition of vital wheat gluten (0.4-2.0%), and steaming time (1.5-7.5 min) on cooking loss, water uptake, volume expansion, cooking time, overall acceptability, L*, a* and b* values were investigated using the central composite rotatable design (CCRD). Results showed that maize flour and split yellow pea flour significantly (p≤0.05) affected cooking loss, water uptake, volume expansion, cooking time, overall acceptability, L*, a*, and b* values at linear levels. Vital wheat gluten had a significant effect on cooking loss, overall acceptability, L*, and a* value. Steaming time had a significant interactive effect with split yellow pea flour and vital wheat gluten on the responses. Incorporation of 18.0% maize flour, 11.25% split yellow pea flour, and 0.4% vital wheat gluten in formulation with 5.87 minutes of steaming time resulted in optimum quality instant noodles. A 20% increase in protein and a 50% increase in fiber content was observed in optimized instant noodles.

Autochthonous Fermentation as a Means to Improve the Bioaccessibility and Antioxidant Activity of Proteins and Phenolic Compounds of Yellow Pea Flour.

This study focused on evaluating the potential of the natural fermentation of pea flour to improve the release of antioxidant compounds. Preliminary fermentations of 36.4% w/w flour dispersions were performed in tubes under different conditions (24 and 48 h, 30 and 37 °C). Finally, fermented flours (FFs) were obtained in a bioreactor under two conditions: 1: 36.4% w/w, 24 h, 30 °C (FF1); 2: 14.3% w/w, 24 h, 37 °C (FF2). The pH values decreased to 4.4-4.7, with a predominance of lactic acid bacteria. As in the fermentations in tubes, an increment in the proteolysis degree (TNBS method) (greater for FF2), polypeptide aggregation and a decrease in their solubility, an increase in <2 kDa peptides, and an increase in the Oxygen Radical Absorption Capacity (ORAC) potency of PBS-soluble fractions after fermentation were demonstrated. Also, fermentation increased the proteolysis degree after simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGID, COST-INFOGEST) with respect to the non-fermented flour digests, with some differences in the molecular composition of the different digests. ORAC and Hydroxyl Radical Averting Capacity (HORAC) potencies increased in all cases. The digest of FF2 (FF2D) presented the greater ORAC value, with higher activities for >4 kDa, as well as for some fractions in the ranges 2-0.3 kDa and <0.10 kDa. Fermentation also increased the 60%-ethanol-extracted phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids, and the ORAC activity. After SGID, the flavan-3-ols disappeared, but some phenolic acids increased with respect to the flour. Fermentation in condition 2 was considered the most appropriate to obtain a functional antioxidant ingredient.

A comprehensive assessment of microscopic characterization techniques to accurately determine the particle size distribution of roller-milled yellow pea flours

The particle size of milled ingredients influences the quality and texture of manufactured foods. However, the limited understanding of how milling influences particle size distribution (PSD) of pulse flours, has hindered the incorporation of pulses in food formulations. This first-ot-its-kind study delves into PSD examination of roller-milled yellow pea flour streams and blends, employing laser diffraction (LD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and synchrotron-based X-ray microcomputed tomography (SR-μCT). LD analysis revealed a multimodal distribution pattern across particle sizes ranging from 3 to 1300 μm. SEM confirmed particle size variations among flour streams and blends. Synchrotron X-rays, known for their high intensity, brightness, and tunable energy, provided seminal insights into complex flour structures. Employing SR-μCT, the 3D volumetric particle size distribution yielded more accurate particle size and shape computations than established techniques. This pulse flour characterization will enable food manufacturers to utilize nutrient-dense pulse ingredients to address the growing market demand for health-conscious products.

Volatile profile and sensory properties of gluten-free bread with yellow pea flour and sourdough

Volatile profile and sensory properties of gluten-free bread with yellow pea flour and sourdough

Development of a gluten‐free bread with added heat‐treated yellow pea flour: Application of response surface methodology

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesProcessing parameters of yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.) flour‐fortified gluten‐free (GF) bread was optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The final bread product was evaluated for quality, sensory acceptability, and shelf life. A second‐order model was fitted to the precooking temperature of whole pea (PTWP), water level, and proof time as the factors used in RSM.FindingsHigher PTWP and lower proof time had significantly (p &lt; .05) lower bread crumb brightness compared to other treatments. Crumb firmness was influenced by the PTWP, water level, and proof time. The optimized parameters for PTWP, water level, and proof time were 156.9°C, 523.8 g, and 18.0 min, respectively. The optimized bread had a brightness (L* value), specific volume, crumb firmness, and mean cell diameter of 68.20, 2.6 mL/g, 174.2 gf, and 3.81 mm, respectively. The optimized GF bread had longer shelf‐life but had significantly (p &lt; .05) lower acceptance scores, than the commercial premix GF bread product.ConclusionThe optimized processing parameters for yellow pea utilization in gluten‐free bread were identified by RSM resulting in optimized quality characteristics of the finished baked product.Significance and NoveltyThe principles of RSM were an excellent tool to optimize the physical attributes of gluten‐free bread formulated with yellow pea flour.

Bulk and flow characteristics of pulse flours: A comparative study of yellow pea, lentil, and chickpea flours of varying particle sizes

Bulk and flow characteristics of pulse flours: A comparative study of yellow pea, lentil, and chickpea flours of varying particle sizes

Effect of infrared heating on the functional properties of yellow pea and green lentil flours

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesValue‐added utilization of pulse flours faces challenges related to their functionality in many food applications. The present research assessed the use of infrared heating (120°C vs. 140°C) tempered (20% vs. 30% moisture) green lentil and yellow pea seeds as a means of tailoring their functional properties.FindingsSome flour functionalities were mildly affected by processing and, in most cases, were correlated with protein surface hydrophobicity and damaged starch content. Solubility at pH 5 was relatively unchanged in response to processing, while the values were slightly lowered at pH 7. The water (WHC) and oil holding capacities (OHC) improved, although OHC tended to decline as heating temperatures increased. Both pulses had poor foaming capacities but high foaming stabilities that remained constant after processing. The highest emulsion activity (EA) for pea was with the 120°C and 30% moisture treatment whereas for lentil it was with 120°C and 20% moisture; the emulsion capacity declined after all treatments.ConclusionsSelect conditions of infrared heating coupled with tempering of pulse seeds before milling can modestly improve the flour's EA, WHC, or OHC.Significance and NoveltyYellow pea and green lentil flours from infrared pretreated seeds can now be more easily formulated into applications based on their functional properties.

Effect of infrared heating on the nutritional properties of yellow pea and green lentil flours

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesTo enhance the utilization of pulse ingredients, greater knowledge of the effect of infrared (IR) processing on protein and starch nutrition is needed. The current study investigated the use of tempering (20% vs. 30% moisture) with IR heating (120°C vs. 140°C) to improve the nutritional value of two commercially important pulses: green lentils and yellow peas.FindingsProximate composition remained mostly unchanged after IR heating for both pulse types. The protein's secondary structure transitioned to a state with a higher amount of random coils as IR processing conditions intensified (increase in moisture and temperature). In vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) increased from 73% to 78%−82% for green lentil and 78% to 81%−85% for yellow pea, depending on IR processing treatment. Tryptophan was the limiting amino acid in all samples. The IVPD corrected amino acid scores were not significantly altered by IR processing. The content of rapidly (RDS) and slowly (SDS) digestible starches increased, whereas that of resistance starch declined with IR processing.ConclusionsThe combined effect of tempering moisture and IR heat as a premilling treatment changed the protein secondary structure but did not improve the overall protein quality of the pulses. Starch digestibility was improved with IR processing.Significance and NoveltyEmploying tempering and IR heating techniques on pulses may be useful in food and feed applications where improved starch digestibility is desired.

Enhancing the Techno-Functionality of Pea Flour by Air Injection-Assisted Extrusion at Different Temperatures and Flour Particle Sizes

Industrial applications of pulses in various food products depend on pulse flour techno-functionality. To manipulate the techno-functional properties of yellow pea flour, the effects of flour particle size (small vs. large), extrusion temperature profile (120, 140 and 160 °C at the die) and air injection pressure (0, 150 and 300 kPa) during extrusion cooking were investigated. Extrusion cooking caused the denaturation of proteins and gelatinization of starch in the flour, which induced changes in the techno-functionality of the extruded flour (i.e., increased water solubility, water binding capacity and cold viscosity and decreased emulsion capacity, emulsion stability, and trough and final viscosities). In general, the large particle size flour required less energy input to be extruded and had higher emulsion stability and trough and final viscosities compared to the small particle size flour. Overall, among all of the treatments studied, extrudates produced with air injection at 140 and 160 °C had higher emulsion capacity and emulsion stability, making them relatively better suited food ingredients for emulsified foods (e.g., sausages). The results indicated air injection's potential as a novel extrusion technique combined with modification of flour particle size distribution and extrusion processing conditions to effectively manipulate product techno-functionality and broaden the applications of pulse flours in the food industry.

Formulation and characterization of a low-cost high-energy grain-based beverage premix: A multi-objective genetic algorithm approach

There is a huge demand for low cost healthy energy drinks amongst the consumers. A novel multigrain beverage premix (MGBP) was formulated using barley, pearl millet, quinoa, and yellow split pea by multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) technique. The effects of processing like roasting and malting on nutritional compositions and correlations were studied using principal component analysis (PCA). Malting had significant effect on almost all nutritional components (p < 0.05). Roasting increased the total carbohydrate content by 67.7% in yellow split pea and 77.2% in barley flours. The Pearson correlation coefficient demonstrated a strong correlation of energy content with carbohydrate and fat content. The optimum combination obtained from MOGA and validated by fuzzy analysis was 30, 28, 30 and 12 g of roasted yellow pea flour (RYPF), roasted pearled barley flour (RPBF), malted pearl millet flour (MPMF) and malted quinoa flour (MQF), respectively per 100 g of MGBP with an energy value of 345.8 kcal and cost Rs. 4.88. The processing triggered the protein-starch interaction and agglomeration as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM); however, the chemical structure remained intact as revealed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy.

Protein composition of pulses and their protein isolates from different sources and in different isolation pH values using a reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography method

The objective of this study was to compare the composition of pulse proteins isolated from lentils and green and yellow peas at two isolation pH values (9 and 11) and determine the effect of this variability on protein functionality. Chromatogram peaks obtained from reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography were identified by isolation of albumin-, vicilin- and legumin-rich fractions for the three pulses. Protein composition was obtained for each isolate and compared against that of the originating pulse flour. Lentil flour showed the highest level of vicilin with a vicilin/legumin ratio of ∼ 2.5, while this ratio was 1.3 and 1.2 for green and yellow pea flour, respectively. Albumin content of yellow pea flour was high (∼36.1 %), which reduced to ∼ 15–19 % in isolated proteins showing a loss in albumins during the isolation. Higher extraction pH increased pea protein yield but led to lower protein solubility with no changes in foaming properties and in-vitro digestibility.

Sensory characterization of yellow pea and ground chicken hybrid meat burgers using static and dynamic methodologies.

To reduce animal protein consumption, new food products need to be created. Furthermore, there is a growing number of consumers who consciously act to reduce their meat consumption. Hybrid meat products (HMP) are food items that combine both plant and animal proteins. The objective of this study was to create a hybrid meat burger (HMB) using yellow pea and chicken and to evaluate the sensory properties of the new product using static (check-all-that-apply [CATA]) and dynamic (temporal check-all-that-apply [TCATA]) methods. Yellow pea flour was added to a chicken burger at 0% (control), 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%. A sensory trial asked participants (n=69) to evaluate the HMBs using hedonic scales and CATA. A second sensory trial asked experienced panelists (n=14) to evaluate the items using TCATA. The addition of the yellow pea flour decreased the liking of the burgers, except for the 10% formulation. The burgers made with higher amounts of yellow pea were associated with off-flavors (beany and nutty; significantly different from the control) during both CATA and TCATA tasks and detracted from consumers' liking. Juicy, moist, meaty, salty, and soft attributes increased the consumers' liking. The study identified that the addition of yellow pea to chicken burgers is only acceptable to consumers in small quantities (10%). In addition, the yellow peas contributed off-flavors and a dry texture that was disliked by the consumers. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The environmental impacts of livestock production have created a need to incorporate more plant-based proteins into consumers' diets to increase sustainability. The market for meat alternatives, including hybrid meat products, is expanding; however, current products do not always meet consumers' expectations. Chicken is the fastest-growing meat sector in North America, and therefore this study's objective was to determine the sensory properties of a burger made from chicken and pulses (yellow pea). It was found that if 10% of chicken in a burger was substituted with yellow pea, then the sensory properties and consumer liking were not significantly affected.

Butterfly Pea Flower as a Novel Ingredient to Produce Antioxidant-Enriched Yellow Pea-Based Breakfast Cereals.

Butterfly pea flower (BP) is a rich source of bioactive components and can potentially be utilized to produce appealing, wholesome foods. Antioxidant and dietary fiber-enriched breakfast cereals were produced by extrusion cooking using blends of BP and yellow pea flour (YP). BP was added to YP at 0%, 5% and 10% levels (w/w), respectively, and extruded at two temperature profiles with die temperatures of 130 and 150 °C. Incorporation of BP significantly (p < 0.05) improved the total phenolics content, antioxidant properties, and insoluble and total dietary fiber content of the extrudates, with 10% BP extrudates showing the highest values. At a die temperature of 150 °C, the extrudates had a higher expansion ratio, a lower dry hardness, and a higher dry crispiness as compared to those at 130 °C. The color of BP-incorporated extrudates was darker and bluer as compared to the no-BP extrudates. The 10% BP extrudates retained relatively more of their hardness, crispiness, and crunchiness after soaking, indicating a better bowl-life and, therefore, better suitability of this blend formula for breakfast cereal production. Overall, this research shows that healthier breakfast cereals with appealing color and relatively longer bowl-life can be produced using BP, making BP a potential novel ingredient for extrusion formulations.

Dry fractionation to produce functional fractions from mung bean, yellow pea and cowpea flour

Dry fractionation of mung bean, yellow pea, and cowpea was performed to investigate the compositions and functional properties of the obtained fractions. Dry fractionation consisted of milling and subsequent air classification using three air classifier wheel speeds. Water holding capacity, gelation, and rheological properties of all fractions were studied. Separation between protein and starch granules was successfully performed by air classifying, as visualized with SEM images. Protein contents in fine fractions ranged from 42% to 58% (w/w), which was dependent on classifier wheel speed and material source. The correlation between water holding capacity and protein content was dependent on material source. Gelation of fine fractions occurred at lower concentrations than flours and coarse fractions. Fine fractions of all materials formed gels with higher elastic modulus (G') than the flour and coarse fractions, while the flour and coarse fractions formed more solid-like gels (lower tan δ). Industrial relevanceThe need for functional plant protein ingredients for food applications is growing continuously. It is thus important to study sustainable methods for plant protein extraction. Dry fractionation is often considered an efficient alternative to the conventional wet fractionation process, that preserves the native functionality of the proteins in addition. For the application of ingredients produced from dry fractionation in food products, it is important to understand their functional properties. Therefore, the functional properties of dry fractionated ingredients produced from three different legumes are evaluated in this manuscript.

Acute Effects of Split Pea-Enriched White Pan Bread on Postprandial Glycemic and Satiety Responses in Healthy Volunteers-A Randomized Crossover Trial.

Pulse consumption has been associated with reduced postprandial glucose response (PPGR) and improved satiety. The objective of this study was (i) to investigate the effects of fortifying white pan bread with split yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.) flour on PPGR and appetite-related sensations, and (ii) to determine whether Revtech heat processing of pea flour alters the postprandial effects. A randomized controlled crossover trial was performed with 24 healthy adults. Participants consumed 50 g available carbohydrate from bread containing 20% pea flour that was untreated (USYP), Revtech processed at 140 °C with no steam (RT0%), Revtech processed at 140 °C with 10% steam (RT10%), or a control bread with 100% white wheat flour (100%W). Blood samples were analyzed for glucose and plasma insulin at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min post-meal. Appetite sensations and product acceptability were measured using visual analogue and 9-point hedonic scales. Results showed no significant difference in the postprandial glucose and insulin responses of different bread treatments. However, pea-containing variants resulted in 18% higher fullness and 16–18% lower hunger, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption ratings compared to 100% W. No differences in the aroma, flavor, color, and overall acceptability of different bread products were observed. This trial supports using pea flour as a value-added ingredient to improve the short-term appetite-related sensations of white pan bread without affecting the overall acceptability.

Statistical evaluation to validate matrix-matched calibration for standardized beany odor compound quantitation in yellow pea flour using HS-SPME-GC-MS.

Accurate and precise quantitation of beany odor compounds is important in developing yellow pea (Pisum sativum L., YP) flour-based foods. Aiming at establishing standardized external calibration using an internal standard (ECIS) quantitation method, the effect of solvent extraction on matrix deodorization and systematic statistical analysis on quantitation was evaluated. Initially, accelerated dichloromethane extraction on YP flour and starch produced two clearest deodorized matrix-matched matrices. Secondly, due to the heteroskedasticity, weighted least squares regression (WLSR) was introduced to build calibration curves. The curve linearity and regression parameters were further confirmed via a t-test. Lastly, methodology indicators including LOD/LOQ, accuracy and precision, and the matrix effect (ME) were assessed. Results showed that there were no significant differences in the quantity of beany odor compounds interpolated from two deodorized matrices. This study demonstrated for the first time that despite the unignorable ME, deodorized starch is a feasible and affordable alternative to deodorized YP flour in the quantitation of beany odor compounds to achieve a reliable result.

Development of Cellular High-Protein Foods: Third-Generation Yellow Pea and Red Lentil Puffed Snacks.

This study aimed to evaluate how extrusion cooking conditions and microwave heating play a role in enhancing physical and thermal properties of third-generation expanded cellular snacks made from yellow pea (YP) and red lentil (RL) flours for the first time. Increasing temperature and moisture content during extrusion resulted in darker, crunchier and crispier products with higher expansion index (EI). Microwave heating after extrusion led to an increase in cell size and porosity of YP and RL products when qualitatively compared to extrusion alone. Additionally, extrusion followed by microwave heating resulted in extensive damage to starch granular structure and complete denaturation of proteins. Using microwave heating, as a fast and inexpensive process, following partial cooking with extrusion was demonstrated to greatly improve the physical and thermal properties of YP and RL snacks. Microwave heating following mild extrusion, instead of severe extrusion cooking alone, can potentially benefit the development of high quality nutritionally-dense expanded cellular snacks made from pulse flours.

Impact of milling on the functional and physicochemical properties of green lentil and yellow pea flours

AbstractBackground and objectivesPulse flours with different particle sizes are available for food production. The effect of varying milling techniques on the quality characteristics of green lentil (GL) and yellow pea (YP) flours was investigated.FindingsUsing a Ferkar mill (one‐step vertical knife mill) caused wider distribution and bigger particle size in all flours than milling with a roller mill. The highest starch damage (3%), starch content (57%), but lowest protein content (22%) were found in YP break flours produced by roller milling. Foaming stability of pulse flours decreased to 51%–71% after 120 min. Lowest viscosities were determined in Ferkar milled flours during pasting. There was no difference in protein strength of GL flours; however, starch gelatinization was found the highest in Ferkar milled flours. In vitro starch digestibility and in vitro protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid score were not affected from milling type within each pulse type.ConclusionDifferent flour streams and different milling technologies caused changes in various flour characteristics. However, the particle size of roller mill flours was similar in each pulse type.Significance and noveltyThe obtained results are a crucial step in better understanding the functional properties and possible food applications of pulse flours according to different milling streams and particle sizes.

Lipid oxidation during the beating of cake batter containing yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.) flour

The aim of this study was to understand the impact of ingredients and processes on reactivity during sponge cake batter making using yellow pea flour. Numerous volatiles were identified, mainly originating from the degradation of linoleic and linolenic acid catalyzed by 10- and 13-lipoxygenases. The extent of lipid oxidation depended on the beating process, owing to the effect on local ingredient distribution and the exposure time of lipoxygenase to its substrates. Although prolonged beating after the addition of either flour or oil did not favor volatile formation, the latter led to elevated quantities of hydroperoxides. This intensified oxidation was assigned to an improved homogeneity and reduced size of lipid droplets and air cells. A sequential increase in both mixing times significantly increased the amount of volatiles, which could be attributed to a larger reaction interface and longer contact time between reactive ingredients. These results highlight the importance of parameter controls to limiting the generation of volatiles with odor activity.