Yellow Parts Research Articles

Drying trend in land and sea in East Asia during the warm season over the past four decades

Abstract The East Asian region is typically characterized by warm and humid conditions from late spring to summer. However, in recent decades, this region has experienced an increase in severe drying conditions, deviating from historical climatological patterns. This study investigated the precipitation-evaporation (P-E) trends across land and sea regions in East Asia (EA) during the extended summer season (April to September) from 1980 to 2022, and the key physical processes driving these trends through moisture budget decomposition and numerical experiments. The results reveal pronounced drying trends in southeastern China and the Yellow Sea and parts of the Korea Strait and Korean Peninsula over the past 43 years. The underlying physical processes driving these drying conditions differ between land and sea in EA. In southeastern China, the drying is driven by dynamic processes, particularly moisture divergence related to wind changes. This is linked to anomalous strengthening of descending motion due to the Indo-Pacific warm pool warming induced by both anthropogenic global warming and natural Pacific Decadal Oscillation-like sea surface temperature (SST) patterns. Conversely, drying in the Yellow Sea and adjacent areas is influenced by thermodynamic moisture advection. The altered humidity distribution due to global warming-induced SST patterns, which are higher over the Northwest Pacific marginal sea and lower in inland China, drives dry air transport from inland China to the Yellow Sea via background southwesterly wind. These findings enhance our understanding of the drying trend and their distinct processes in EA’s land and sea areas during the extended summer.

Further observations of a Black Falcon Falco subniger with yellow bare parts

I describe and provide photographs of a typically dark-plumaged Black Falcon Falco subniger that had yellow bare parts – cere, base of lower mandible, orbital skin and feet – observed in the field near Oakey, in inland Queensland, in July 2024.

Another Black Falcon Falco subniger with yellow bare parts

We describe and illustrate a Black Falcon Falco subniger, observed in the field near Milparinka in outback New South Wales in May 2024, that had yellow bare parts. Following our online posts that generated debate on the bird’s identity, and referral to raptor enthusiasts and experts, we here document the case and briefly review relevant background and questions for further investigation.

UPLC–MS/MS and Gene Expression Research to Distinguish the Colour Differences of Rhododendron liliiflorum H. Lév

Among ornamental plants, the colour of the petals is an important feature. However, the reason for the colour differences of Rhododendron liliiflorum remains unclear. To reveal the differences in the colour of R. liliiflorum, high-efficiency liquid chromatographic collar (UPLC–MS/MS) technology was used to study the yellow and white parts of R. liliiflorum. A total of 1187 metabolites were identified in R. liliiflorum petals, including 339 flavonoid metabolites. Seventy-eight types of flavonoids in these metabolites were found in the yellow and white parts of R. liliiflorum petals, along with 11 other significantly enriched substances. Combining gene expression-related data with differential metabolite data demonstrated effects of enrichment in the flavanonols (fustin), flavonols (epiafzelechin and afzelechin), and flavanones (pinocembrin) of flavonoid biosynthesis; glyccitin, 6″-O-malonylgenistin, and 6-hydroxydaidzein of isoflavonoid biosynthesis; and anthocyanin biosynthesis of malvidin-3-O-galactoside (primulin), delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (kuromanin), and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside (keracyanin), which are potentially the contributing factors responsible for the differences in petal colour in R. liliiflorum. This study establishes a connection between the differential metabolites underlying the color differences in the petals of R. liliiflorum and the gene expression in R. liliiflorum. This will provide a foundation for subsequent research on the regulation of flower color in R. liliiflorum and have profound implications for horticultural applications of R. liliiflorum.

The Correlation of Colour and Iron Oxides in Yellow Seal Stones from Northern Laos

The yellow seal stone from northern Laos is one possible substitute for the Tianhuang Stone, the most famous Chinese seal stone, because of its similar yellow to orange-yellow appearance and the same main mineral composition. The colour causation of the yellow seal stone from northern Laos was studied. The samples’ phase, micro-morphology and chemical components were studied by Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy disperse spectroscopy (EDS), respectively. The yellow seal stone from northern Laos is mainly composed of dickite, occasionally with minor impurity minerals, such as hematite, anatase, barite, diaspore and pyrite. Micro- to nano-sized iron oxides/hydroxides were observed and detected by SEM and EDS in the yellow to orange-yellow part of the samples. Moreover, these iron oxides/hydroxides were suggested to cause the yellow to orange-yellow in the seal stone from northern Laos. The UV-Vis spectrum and its second derivative, the Kubelka-Munk spectra, were used to identify and quantify hematite and goethite. The samples’ colour parameters were obtained with the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) 1931 standard space. According to the observation of the samples and the results obtained from experiments and calculations, the colour of the yellow parts (L* = 33.56~47.99, a* = 0.35~3.65, b* = 4.55~9.89) correlated with goethite (goethite is about 0.175~0.671 g/kg, the content of hematite was too low to be figured out in the yellow parts). In contrast, the colour of the orange-yellow parts (L* = 33.99~46.27, a* = 3.98~12.39, b* = 8.04~22.14) was more closely related with the content of hematite (goethite is about 0.096~0.691 g/kg, hematite is about 0.258~2.383 g/kg). The results of correlation analysis also support that the contents of iron oxides or hydroxides influence the samples’ colour. Therefore, it is suggested that micro- to nano-scaled hematite and goethite caused the colour of yellow and orange-yellow in the studied seal stone. Hematite can strengthen the red hue and change the colour from yellow to orange-yellow.

Transcriptome Analysis of Rhododendron liliiflorum H. Lév. Flower Colour Differences

Rhododendron liliiflorum H. Lév., with white outer edges and yellow inner edges of petals, is an ornamental flower that originated in China. In this study, we analysed the white (W) and yellow (Y) parts of R. liliiflorum flowers by RNA sequencing. Then, unigene assembly, unigene annotation, and classification of Eukaryotic Orthologous Groups (KOGs) were performed. Gene ontology (GO) classification and pathway enrichment analysis for unigenes were also conducted. A total of 219,221 transcripts and 180,677 unigenes of R. liliiflorum were obtained from 48.52 Gb of clean reads. Differentially expressed gene (DEG) analysis indicated that 2310 unigenes were upregulated and 3062 were downregulated in W vs. Y. Thirty-six of these DEGs were involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that DEGs were significantly enriched in phenylpropanoid, flavonoid, and isoflavone biosynthesis. The expression of dihydroflavonol-4-reductase (DFR) and chalcone synthase (CHS) may affect differences in R. liliiflorum flower colour. The findings on flavonoid biosynthesis and other related genes in this study will provide guidance for exploring the mechanism of flower colour formation in Rhododendron.

Sodium and Sulphur Content in Plants after Lime, Charcoal, and Loam Application to Soil Contaminated with Fluorine

This article presents the results of a study on the effect of fluorine pollution of soil, including soil amendments, on the concentration of sodium and sulphur in six species of crops. The experiment consisted of six pot trials performed in a greenhouse. Two factors were taken into consideration: (I) Increasing doses of fluorine (0, 20, 40, and 60 mg F kg−1 of soil for narrow-leaf lupine and 0, 100, 200, and 300 mg F kg−1 of soil for yellow lupine, winter oilseed rape, spring triticale, black radish, and phacelia) and (II) neutralizing substances (lime–1 HAC, charcoal and loam–3% relative to the soil mass). The highest sodium content was in t roots of winter oilseed rape, and the lowest was in the grain of spring triticale. Large differences were detected in the Na content between the analyzed organs of phacelia. The roots of this plant contained 16-fold more sodium than aerial parts. The highest average content of sulphur was in yellow lupine aerial parts, and the lowest was in spring triticale aerial biomass. The increasingly severe soil pollution with fluorine, in most cases, led to a decline in the sodium and sulphur content in the analyzed crops. The highest degree of soil contamination with fluorine had the strongest negative effect in this regard. The content of the analyzed macronutrients concerned the species and organs of a crop, the dose of the tested xenobiotic, and the substance applied to soil for the inactivation of fluorine. A decrease in the sodium content in most of the tested crops could be attributed to the fact that fluorine ‘reacts’, i.e., binds sodium into compounds that are hardly soluble in water, thereby limiting sodium phytovailability.

Achieving a wide color gamut based on polarization interference filters in a liquid crystal display.

We propose two polarization interference filters (PIF1 and PIF2) used in the backlight unit of a liquid crystal display (LCD) to achieve a wide color gamut. Both PIF1 and PIF2 consist of two polarizers and two 720° super twisted nematic liquid crystal polymer (LCP) layers, where two polarizers are crossed in PIF1, and two polarizers are parallel in PIF2. The PIFs can eliminate unwanted cyan and yellow parts in the output spectrum, which can improve the color gamut of LCD. In our calculation, when the PIF1 is employed in the LCD with normal color filter and QD-LED backlight, the color gamut increases from 107.3% NTSC to 124.6% NTSC, which is 13.7% NTSC larger than that of the LCD with high-performance color filter. When the PIF2 is employed in the LCD with normal color filter and QD-LED backlight, the color gamut of LCD with a normal color filter is improved by 6.8% NTSC larger than that of LCD with high-performance color film, and the transfer efficiency is close to that of the LCD with high-performance color film. We define the color gamut enhancement ratio (CGER) to compare the influence of PIFs and the high-performance color filter on the color gamut enhancement performance of LCD. Compared with the high-performance color filter, the two kinds of PIFs have a higher CGER. The PIFs have a great potential for achieving a wide color gamut.

Annealing-Induced Structural Behavior of Mn Dopant Ions in Calcium Orthovanadate Ca3(VO4)2 Single Crystals.

The crystal and local structures of Czochralski-grown calcium orthovanadate (Ca3(VO4)2) single crystals doped with over-stoichiometric 0.05 wt % Mn2O3 (CVO:0.05Mn) and annealed under different conditions are studied by single-crystal conventional and synchrotron X-ray diffraction, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and electron paramagnetic resonance for the first time. Bottom (annealing in air) and top (annealing in air and in vacuum) parts of the CVO:0.05Mn crystal differ in the manganese content (higher in the bottom part), formal charge (Mn4+ and Mn(3+δ)+, respectively), and color (orange bottom part; light orange and yellow top parts annealed in air and vacuum, respectively). Manganese ions are located in one (Ca3, distorted two-capped trigonal prism) of five crystallographic Ca sites and have octahedral coordination, which is consistent with crystal-chemical properties of transition-metal ions. The presence of vacancies in one of three V sites is revealed. Formal charge 5+ for vanadium ions is confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Different colors of CVO:Mn crystals and different formal charges of manganese are explained depending on the growth and post-growth treatment conditions.

Morphological variation in the Black Falcon Falco subniger

We describe and discuss a field observation of a strongly speckle-breasted and barred Black Falcon Falco subniger that also, unusually, had yellow feet and cere and pale-yellow orbital rings. We also found several museum specimens with ‘variegated’ plumage and yellow bare parts. We speculate that yellow bare parts in this species might occur only in some individuals, perhaps mostly males, of the most variegated (pale-marked) plumage types, and that these correlated features may be age-related characters that deserve further investigation. We also discuss the implications for field identification.

Things Always Come in Three: Non-Invasive Investigations of Alexander and Roxane’s Wedding Room in Villa Farnesina

Non-invasive optical spectroscopical analyses were conducted on the three main walls of Alexander and Roxane’s Wedding Room in Villa Farnesina, Rome. The north and the east walls were frescoed by Sodoma in 1519. The decoration of the third wall was subsequent and neither the author nor the period is known. The north and east walls underwent various restorations, some even very invasive. For these reasons, the supposed remaining original parts of the two walls by Sodoma were studied and compared with the third one, aiming to obtain more information about its author and epoch. The results show the use of the same pigments for the three walls. In particular, the same yellow pigments including lead antimonate, the use of enamel blue with Bi impurities whose use is time-limited, and the use of a certain kind of purple hematite. The commonality in the pictorial technique also emerged, especially in the yellow parts, painted in the same way on each wall. This information, and documentary sources, reinforce the hypothesis that the third wall was decorated shortly after the death of Agostino Chigi by someone who was well-acquainted with the materials and techniques used by Sodoma for the other two walls.

Study on changes in pigment composition during the blooming period of safflower based on plant metabolomics and semi-quantitative analysis.

Red and yellow pigments are the major ingredients of safflower, often used to color food and cosmetics. Carthamin was the main component of red pigment and hydroxysafflor yellow A and anhydrosafflower yellow B were representative components of yellow pigment. Plant metabolomics and semi-quantitative analysis were used to analyze the changes of pigment composition during the blooming period, especially these characteristic components. Carthamin, hydroxysafflor yellow A, anhydrosafflower yellow B, and other components were screened out as differential metabolites based on plant metabolomics. Then semi-quantitative analysis was used to quantify these three representative components of pigments. Experimental results showed that the content of pigments has dynamic changes along with flowering, in the early blooming period, yellow pigment accumulated much and red pigment was low in content. In the middle period, the accumulation rate of the yellow pigment slowed down and content was stabilized. In the next step, the content of yellow pigments gradually decreased, and the content of red pigments gradually increased. Later, the level of yellow pigment decreased significantly, and the accumulation rate of red pigment increased significantly. Last, the appearance color of safflower was red, with yellow parts barely visible, and accumulation of red pigment was the highest and of the yellow pigment was the lowest in content.

Antibiotic treatment increases yellowness of carotenoid feather coloration in male greenfinches (Chloris chloris)

Carotenoid plumage coloration is an important sexually selected trait in many bird species. However, the mechanisms ensuring the honesty of signals based on carotenoid pigments remain unclear. It has recently been suggested that intestinal integrity, which is affected by gut parasites and microbiota and influences nutrient absorption and acquisition, mediates the relationship between carotenoid ornamentation and individual quality. Here, we test whether carotenoid plumage coloration in greenfinches (Chloris chloris) is affected by the treatment of an antibiotic or an antiparasitic drug. We captured wild greenfinches (N = 71) and administered anticoccidial medication toltrazuril (TOLTRA) to one group, antibiotic metronidazole (METRO) to the second group to target trichomonosis, and the third group received no medication. In the METRO group, feathers grown during the experiment had significantly higher chroma of yellow parts, but there was no effect of TOLTRA on feather chroma. The results suggest that METRO increased the efficiency of carotenoid modification or deposition to the feathers rather than nutrient acquisition and/or freed energy resources that could be invested in coloration. Alternatively, though not measured, METRO might have affected microbial community and host physiology as microbial metabolites can modulate mitochondrial and immune function.

Testing variety of cucumber F1 Ciborg, F1 Bavarets in LIT crop culture

Relevance. The most popular cucumber in Russia is pickling type (lenght 10-12 cm). There are not a lot of varieties this type cucumber for high wire and LIT crop in Russian seeds market.Methods. Were tested russian varieties F1 Ciborg, F1 Bavarets (Gavrish company) in compare F1 Bjorn (Enza Zaden, Netherlands) – the most popular in Russia now. Russian customer prefer pickling type because of traditional Russian cuisine. Prices of pickling type cucumber at autumn-winter time in 1-1.5 times more than middle size type cucumber. We had artificial light 240 Wt/sq.m, sodium lamps, our substrate was rockwool – Belagro (company from Belarusian republic). This rockwool have normal quality for short crop (3-4 month for growing cucumber), our plant density 2.76 plant/sq.m it was optimal for our light conditions (natural light in our region and artificial light).Results. Fourteen days after we put plants on slabs we had problems with plants of both russian varieties (F1 Ciborg and F1 Bavarets). We saw yellow parts in leaves, decrease length of stems, lost flowers. We made a decision about too high level of artificial light. We had only one opportunity for decrease it switch off 50% of lamps. We made it and we had 120 Wt/sq.m that. Therefore, we spent 50% less electricity for russian varieties. We think varieties F1 Ciborg and F1 Bavarets not very good for winter crop and we had good results because in our situation we have winter-spring crop, and every day the part of artificial light decrease and the part of natural light increase. F1 Ciborg had a problem with CGMMV and was deleted in 24th week of 2020. But we suppose it depend from a lot of conditions: quality of labor, protection plants. We think it is necessary more additional research. Total yield (for ten weeks of harvesting in winter-spring crop) F1 Bavarets – 32.4 kg/sq.m., F1 Ciborg – 31.9 kg/sq.m more then had F1 Bjorn – 28.9 kg/sq.m. The best marketable condition was F1 Ciborg, the second F1 Bjorn.

Detectability is in the eye of the beholder—the role of UV reflectance on tadpole detection and predation by a passerine bird

The evolution of defensive coloration is dependent upon a complex combination of variables related to the prey itself, the environmental context, and predator vision/behavior. Some animals reflect ultraviolet (UV) light, which is visible to predators such as birds. Here, we report the first case of UV reflectance by a tadpole (Ololygon machadoi, Hylidae) and we investigate whether it influences tadpole detection/predation by a bird (Saltator similis, Passeriformes) on backgrounds of three different colors (two blending – yellow and dark – and one not blending – blue – to tadpole colors). We also tested whether a previous experience of the birds with the prey species would influence the search/attack effort. Although many predation attempts were recorded, birds did not consume many tadpoles. Birds attempted to/preyed upon more tadpoles on dark backgrounds in the presence rather than the absence of the UV portion of the spectrum; attempt/predation on the other backgrounds (yellow, blue) did not change between the UV conditions. The differential contrast of dark and yellow tadpole body parts against specific backgrounds may aid to disruptive properties. The interruption of tadpole body contour was probably enough to prevent detection on yellow and blue backgrounds based on low achromatic contrasts of yellow and dark body parts against such backgrounds, respectively. On dark backgrounds, however, an increase in the chromatic contrast of yellow bars caused by UV reflectance may have reached a threshold and increased tadpole detectability. Birds spent more time searching for tadpoles and visited more frequently the trays in the first than in the second trial, and several tadpoles were regurgitated after ingestion, suggesting that the existence of a potential aposematic role of the UV reflectance cannot be disregarded. Birds also spent more time inspecting blue backgrounds, which may relate to their unfamiliarity with such backgrounds. UV reflectance in O. machadoi tadpoles unveals a potential adaptative value of this feature for the larval stage, and our results indicate influence on tadpole detection by birds. The effects of such adaptation in natural habitats and its occurrence in other species deserve further studies. Defensive colorations that hamper prey detection can play an important role on prey survival, which depends on background matching ability, prey and predator behavior, and predator visual system. Tadpoles are preyed upon by a variety of visually oriented predators and background matching is likely to aid survivorship through decreased detectability. We show for the first time that tadpoles of Ololygon machadoi, although apparently benefited by camouflage, reflect UV wavelenghts, becoming more visible and maybe providing some kind of aversiveness signaling to birds. In natural conditions, however, the water column on deep stream microhabitats usually occupied by the tadpoles is expected to filter UV wavelengths and improve background matching, at least for some specific background colors.

Dahlia variabilis cultivar ‘Seattle’ as a model plant for anthochlor biosynthesis

We investigated the bi-colored dahlia cultivar ‘Seattle’, which exhibits bright yellow petals with white tips, for its potential use as a model system for studies of the anthochlor biosynthesis. The yellow base contained high amounts of the 6′-deoxychalcones and the structurally related 4-deoxyaurones, as well as flavones. In contrast, only traces of anthochlors and flavones were detected in the white tips. No anthocyanins, flavonols, flavanones or dihydroflavonols were found in the petals. Gene expression studies indicated that the absence of anthocyanins in the petals is caused by a lack of flavanone 3-hydroxylase (FHT) expression, which is accompanied by a lack of expression of the bHLH transcription factor IVS. Expression of other genes involved in anthocyanidin biosynthesis such as dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) and anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) was not affected. The yellow and white petal parts showed significant differences in the expression of chalcone synthase 2 (CHS2), which is sufficient to explain the absence of yellow pigments in the white tips. Transcriptomes of both petal parts were de novo assembled and three candidate genes for chalcone reductase (CHR) were identified. None of them showed a significantly higher expression in the yellow base compared to the white tips. In summary, it was shown that the bicolouration is most likely caused by a bottleneck in chalcone formation in the white tip. The relative prevalence of flavones compared to the anthochlors in the white tips could be an indication for the presence of a so far unknown differentially expressed CHR.

Structural insights into the inhibition of bacterial RecA by naphthalene polysulfonated compounds.

SummaryAs a promising target for alternative antimicrobials, bacterial recombinase A (RecA) protein has attracted much attention for its roles in antibiotic-driven SOS response and mutagenesis. Naphthalene polysulfonated compounds (NPS) such as suramin have previously been explored as antibiotic adjuvants targeting RecA, although the underlying structural bases for RecA-ligand interactions remain obscure. Based on our in silico predictions and documented activity of NPS in vitro, we conclude that the analyzed NPS likely interact with Tyr103 (Y103) and other key residues in the ATPase activity center (pocket A). For validation, we generated recombinant RecA proteins (wild-type versus Y103 mutant) to determine the binding affinities for RecA protein interactions with suramin and underexamined NPS in isothermal titration calorimetry. The corresponding dissociation constants (Kd) ranged from 11.5 to 18.8 μM, and Y103 was experimentally shown to be critical to RecA-NPS interactions.

Refined RGB Strategy for the Synthesis of Polymer‐Based Full Organic Luminescent Nanotubes with Broad Emission Bands

AbstractLight‐emitting polymer nanotubes with tailored fluorescence emission bands have been prepared using organic emissive materials based on benzofuran, carbazole, and indolocarbazole scaffolds and investigated with the goal to obtain pure white‐light emission at the nanoscale. The polymer nanostructures were obtained by the anodic aluminium oxide (AAO) template method with PMMA as a transparent polymer matrix and a proficient choice of organic dyes emitting in the blue, green, yellow and red parts of the spectral range. It is demonstrated that combining aqueous dispersions of monochromatic nanotubes is an effective way of generating white light emission due to a simple correlation between the individual color components. Furthermore, it is also possible to target white emission at the nanoscale by adjusting the concentration of the dyes inside single nanotubes in order to obtain optimal color coordinates of ca. 0.3 in the CIE chromaticity diagram.

Interactive Model of Disaster risk & Disaster management: The Egg Model

A conceptual model is always a suitable way to show the relationship between the different components of a process or among different processes. In the field of incident management, there are several models. However, there is almost no simple, natural, conceptual model to show the relationship between disaster risk management. In this article, a new model, which is called the Egg model, including the shell, the white (albumen) and the yellow (yolk) parts, is introduced. In which, risk management includes three steps. The first step is the assignment of a body, either a person, team or organization, as responsible (the resembling the shell). In the second step, the body does the assessment of the risk (resembling the white part). Risk assessment, on its own, includes risk identification, risk analysis, and risk evaluation. Finally, (resembling the yellow part), treatment of the risk(s) is begun which includes, prevention and mitigation, and preparedness before the disaster and, response and recovery after the disaster occurrence. Obviously, without an intact shell, the whole egg (albumen and yolk) will decay and all resources will be lost. Also without assessment of the risks, proper and effective management of the disaster is almost impossible. The third step of the risk management, the risk treatment, is in fact the disaster management. This simple model shows the relationship between risk management and risk treatment. Although this model may have oversimplified the process of Risk Management, it helps to create a unique overview and understanding for almost everyone.

Interactive Model of Disaster risk & Disaster management: The Egg Model

Background: A conceptual model is always a suitable way to show the relationship between the different components of a process or among different processes. In the field of incident management, there are several models. However, there is almost no simple, natural, conceptual model to show the relationship between disaster risk management. Methods: Because of the need for the development of a simple model that can quickly and at a glance relate the overall steps and components of the risk management process and various phases of disaster management, this model has been invented based on the evaluation of previous studies and reviewing current literature as well as refining the research and innovation done by the authors. Results: In this article, a new model, which is called the Egg model, including the shell, the white (albumen) and the yellow (yolk) parts, is introduced. In which, risk management includes three steps. The first step is the assignment of a body, either a person, team or organization, as responsible (the resembling the shell). In the second step, the body does the assessment of the risk (resembling the white part). Risk assessment, on its own, includes risk identification, risk analysis, and risk evaluation. Finally, (resembling the yellow part), treatment of the risk(s) is begun which includes, prevention and mitigation, and preparedness before the disaster and, response and recovery after the disaster occurrence. Obviously, without an intact shell, the whole egg (albumen and yolk) will decay and all resources will be lost. Also without assessment of the risks, proper and effective management of the disaster is almost impossible. The third step of the risk management, the risk treatment, is in fact the disaster management. Conclusion: This simple model shows the relationship between risk management and risk treatment. Although this model may have oversimplified the process of Risk Management, it helps to create a unique overview and understanding for almost everyone