Yellow Mongoose Research Articles

Cognitive flexibility in urban yellow mongooses, Cynictis penicillata

Cognitive flexibility enables animals to alter their behaviour and respond appropriately to environmental changes. Such flexibility is important in urban settings where environmental changes occur rapidly and continually. We studied whether free-living, urban-dwelling yellow mongooses, Cynictis penicillata, in South Africa, are cognitively flexible in reversal learning and attention task experiments (n = 10). Reversal learning was conducted using two puzzle boxes that were distinct visually and spatially, each containing a preferred or non-preferred food type. Once mongooses learned which box contained the preferred food type, the food types were reversed. The mongooses successfully unlearned their previously learned response in favour of learning a new response, possibly through a win-stay, lose-shift strategy. Attention task experiments were conducted using one puzzle box surrounded by zero, one, two or three objects, introducing various levels of distraction while solving the task. The mongooses were distracted by two and three distractions but were able to solve the task despite the distractions by splitting their attention between the puzzle box task and remaining vigilant. However, those exposed to human residents more often were more vigilant. We provide the first evidence of cognitive flexibility in urban yellow mongooses, which enables them to modify their behaviour to urban environments.

Evidence for a host switching in the maintenance of canid rabies variant in two wild carnivore species in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa.

Rabies is a zoonotic infectious disease that causes at least 59 000 human deaths worldwide annually, with 95% of the cases occurring in the developing countries of Asia and Africa. There are two Lyssavirus rabies (RABV) variants circulating in South Africa, notably the canid and mongoose RABV biotypes. The canid RABV biotype is maintained in the domestic dog and two wild carnivore species, the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) and the bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis). The yellow mongoose, a member of the Herpestidae family, is a reservoir and vector species for the mongoose RABV biotype. Rabies trends showed an increase in rabiespositive cases in aardwolves between 2011 and 2016 surpassing the bat-eared fox as the most rabies-affected wild carnivore in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. The aim of the study was to establish the genetic relationships amongst rabies viruses recovered from both the aardwolves and bat-eared foxes. A partial region of the glycoprotein gene and the variable G-L intergenic region of the viral genome were analysed using nucleotide sequences generated from PCR amplicons. The rabies viruses recovered from the aardwolves between the year 2015 and 2017 were 100% nucleotide sequence identical, suggesting a single or common source and possible evidence for a host shift. Furthermore, the phylogenetic reconstruction demonstrated that the rabies viruses obtained from the two wild carnivore species from the Northern Cape Province clustered independently of each o ther with 96% nucleotide sequence identity, suggesting that the aardwolf may be able to maintain the canid RABV variant in this geographical area.

The relationship between flight initiation distance and cognition of urban-living yellow mongooses, Cynictis penicillata

Abstract Reduced flight initiation distance (FID) enables urban-living animals to forage closer to humans, while improved cognitive abilities may be beneficial in assessing the level of danger. We assessed whether yellow mongooses, Cynictis penicillata, which are more tolerant to human disturbances, are also better problem-solvers. Mongooses in two locations (), differing in levels of human contact, were presented with a puzzle-box containing a food incentive. FID was longer in the location with more human contact, but reduced at sites closer to humans. With greater human contact, mongooses fled further from the puzzle box and took longer to recover. Despite differences in tolerance to human disturbance and the subsequent recovery, location did not affect problem-solving efficiency. However, the fear response and recovery time decreased in mongooses with lower tolerance of humans, whereas problem-solving decreased in mongooses that were more tolerant to humans, possibly a result of habituation to the humans.

The Role of Umwelt in Animal Curiosity: A Within and Between Species Comparison of Novelty Exploration in Mongooses

In its broadest sense, curiosity has been described as an intrinsic motivation to acquire novel information; this ‘novelty-seeking’ is notably in the absence of any immediate reward. One way to examine information seeking in animals, has been to present animals with novel objects and measure the way animals gather information through exploration. While this is a standardized and common paradigm, few studies have focused on what factors influence how animals perceive novelty, whilst considering the predicted impacts of an animal’s ‘umwelt’ on exploration. In this study we assessed explorative behaviors in mongooses through both an intra and interspecific view. First, in meerkats (Suricata suricatta) tested in their natural environment, we established that they distinguish familiar from unfamiliar and show increased exploration of novel objects. We also found that odor influenced the meerkats’ explorative action, so that non-odorous items were manipulated longer. Presence of conspecifics influenced approaches to novelty, but not the exploration per se. Human presence interacted with an individual’s level of habituation to impact approaches and exploration of novelty and we found a strong captivity effect on exploration between captive and wild meerkats. Between species analysis showed that yellow mongooses (Cynictis penicillate), a less social mongoose than meerkats, showed higher levels of novelty exploration, when tested within the same habitat. Thus, these findings show that multiple factors, including perceptual abilities (merkwelt) and social factors (sozialwelt), are decisive for when and how animals explore their environment and must be considered both when designing novelty paradigm tests and their interpretations.

Learning and innovation in urban yellow mongooses (Cynictis penicillata)

AbstractProblem‐solving and innovation have been studied extensively, yet urban animals are overlooked despite opportunities to innovate in urban areas. We studied problem‐solving in yellow mongooses (Cynictis penicillata) in an urban setting. Using novel puzzle box experiments, we investigated whether yellow mongooses could solve a task of increasing complexity in three locations with varying extents of anthropogenic interactions. Mongooses in a residential ecological estate took the longest time to solve the problem, whereas those frequenting a residential garden solved the problem the fastest. Mongooses solved the puzzle box problem at each of the four stages of complexity, but were the fastest during the least complex first stage, followed by the third stage and requiring more time in the second and fourth stages of complexity. Overall, the location of the mongoose colonies and the complexity of the task were the main correlates of the speed of solving the problem. Urban‐living yellow mongooses can interact with novelty in an anthropogenic environment and solve novel problems through innovation to obtain a food incentive.

Mammal diversity of an urbanised environment in an arid zone of south-west Africa

Thorough investigation of the entire mammalian assemblages has not been hitherto conducted in any African city. Most studies were limited to single species causing problems to citizens or to small mammals causing health hazard. In 2011–2020, 81 mammal species were recorded in Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, although only 34 (42.0%) species occurred in the inner zone of the city (50 sq. km). The most speciose (25 species) order were rodents. Within this order the most speciose was the family Muridae (n = 13 species), while the most common rodent species were: Rhabdomys pumilio, Mastomys coucha, Gerbilliscus leucogaster, and Gerbillurus paeba. The second most speciose group of mammals were Chiroptera represented by 14 (17.3%) species in the outer zone (650 sq. km) and 8 species (23.5%) in the inner zone. Ungulates, although mostly rare or uncommon, were in the outer zone represented by eight (9.9%) species. None was, however, recorded in the inner zone. Nineteen Carnivora species (23.5%) were recorded in the outer zone, but only two of them in the inner zone. Other species recorded in Windhoek were representatives of seven other orders: Eulipotyphla (n = 4 spp.), Macroscelidea (n = 3), Lagomorpha (n = 3), Hyracoidea (n = 1), Primates (n=2), Tubulidentata (n = 1), and Pholidota (n = 1). Two species, Cynictis penicillata and Geosciurus inauris, were found to be relatively common in the inner zone. They have reached a population density (5.6 and >2.0 individuals per 100 ha, respectively) higher than in any other cities in Namibia, and probably in southern Africa at large. Despite intense searching in the inner zone, Hystrix africeaustralis and Procavia capensis were only recorded in a shrubby hill. The Procavia capensis population was estimated at 40–70 individuals. A few troops of Papio ursinus are resident only in the outer zone. The following species recorded in Windhoek are in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Acinonx jubatus, Panthera pardus, Felis nigripes, Hyaena brunnea, and Smutia temminckii. Noteworthy is the absence of any alien mammal species in the inner zone, and the presence of only Mus musculus in the outer zone of the city. The protection of mammals in Windhoek, especially in the outer zone, may act as a catalyst to move the municipality governance towards a more effective biodiversity conservation.

Anthropogenic Disturbance, Not Topographic Dispersal Barriers, Limit Forest and Maintain Madagascar's Derived Savannas

Photo 1. Central Highland grassland (RN7 national road; Isalo district). Levels of grass endemicity in Madagascar are most similar to those of the derived grasslands of the previously forested islands of New Guinea, New Zealand, Japan, and the Mascarenes (Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues). Annual burning of Malagasy treeless grasslands west of the escarpment to support zebu cattle is so intensive that it exposes topsoil and selects a fire-adapted anthropogenic grass assemblage of low palatability, dominated by Loudetia simplex, Schizachyrium sanguineum, and Trachypogon spicatus. This habitat is driven by pastoralism, not topography. Photo credit: Grant Joseph. Photo 2. Critically Endangered Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) in remnant forest at Zombitse, surrounded by anthropogenic grassland. Zombitse is just one of many areas west of the escarpment harboring closed-canopy forests. Over 90% of vertebrates, being predominately forest-adapted, are limited to such areas across Madagascar, despite the fact that almost 80% of the island not under agriculture is now grassland. This evolutionary anomaly is best explained by treeless grasslands having been historically smaller, or ephemeral. Photo credit: Grant Joseph. Photo 3. Despite sharing common ancestry with African Herpestids that have easily evolved to open habitats [e.g., Cynictis penicillata (a); Suricata suricatta (b)], Malagasy Euplerids [e.g., the Endangered Mungotictis decemlineata (c); the Vulnerable and decreasing Cryptoprocta ferox (d)] are forest-adapted. The same is true of all non-arboreal Malagasy mammal lineages, which have failed to evolve into savanna–grassland specialists, suggesting that open habitats have either not been sufficiently stable or sufficiently vast to promote open-habitat adapted species. Photo credit: Colleen Seymour (a); Grant Joseph (b–d). Photo 4. Aside from the remaining subhumid forest patches on the Central Highlands which share many tree species with eastern lowland forest (thus contradicting the proposal of range-pinning), there are multiple canopied, non-savanna systems west of the escarpment, harboring species dependant on woody vegetation. Examples include deciduous forest, e.g., Kirindy Forest, harboring Coua cristata (a); Zombitse Forest, home to the Endangered Lepilemur hubbardorum (b); Tsingy De Bemaraha Forest sustaining Critically Endangered Propithecus deckenii (c), and Spiny Forest, e.g., Raniala Forest, here providing habitat for the Vulnerable and decreasing Furcifer antimena (d). Photo credit: Grant Joseph. Photo 5. Zebu (Bos taurus indicus) cattle number 7 to 10 million head, and form obligate C4 grazing lawns on Madagascar. There is no evidence to date for any Malagasy obligate grazers, past or present. Treeless grazing lawns now occur where paleoecological evidence supports recent existence of C3 forest and woodland tree species, containing subfossils representing extinct herbivores that included a large component of C3 species in their diets. Transformation of these woodlands and forests to grassland, and extirpation of endemic tree-adapted herbivores occurred coeval with the switch from human gathering and hunting to pastoralism and farming. Photo credit: Grant Joseph. These photographs illustrate the article “Dispersal limitation and fire feedbacks maintain mesic savannas in Madagascar: Comment” by Grant S. Joseph and Colleen L. Seymour published in Ecology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4045

The Determinants of Mesocarnivore Activity Patterns in Highveld Grassland and Riparian Habitats

Despite the diversity of mesocarnivores and the broad geographic ranges of these species, our understanding of their behaviour and ecology at multi-species and community levels is limited. Our study was conducted between April and mid-July 2015 and used data collected over 105 days from 39 camera traps to quantify activity patterns of sympatric mesocarnivores in riparian and grassland habitats of Telperion Nature Reserve, South Africa. A total of 13 mesocarnivore species were detected within this relatively small (∼7350 ha) reserve. Sufficient records (≥10 records) were obtained for rusty-spotted genet (Genetta maculata), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), otter species (African clawless otter, Aonyx capensis, and spotted-necked otter, Hydrictis maculicollis), serval (Leptailurus serval ), slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea), yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata) and marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus). Generalized linear models were used to investigate whether species ID, temperature, vegetation characteristics or moon phase best predicted temporal activity. To assess which species had the highest potential for competitive interaction, we also quantified the coefficient of activity overlap. Our results show that species ID and temperature were the best predictors of mesocarnivore activity. Slender and yellow mongooses displayed the highest coefficient of activity overlap (0.90), followed by marsh mongoose and rusty-spotted genet (0.80), and serval and rusty-spotted genet (0.79). These species are likely to have the highest potential for competitive interactions, but preferences for different vegetation characteristics and variations in the estimated relative abundance may point to coexistence through spatial and fine-scale temporal partitioning. The other species exhibited lower coefficients of activity overlap with each other, suggesting they may coexist through temporal partitioning of resources.

Patterns of rabies cases in South Africa between 1993 and 2019, including the role of wildlife.

Rabies is a global viral zoonosis endemic to South Africa, resulting in fatal encephalitis in warm-blooded animals, including humans. The loss of human lives and economic losses in rural areas through loss of livestock are substantial. A review was conducted of all confirmed animal rabies cases in South Africa from 1993 to 2019, with a total of 11701 cases identified to species level to assess the role that wildlife plays in the epidemiology of rabies. A spatio-temporal cluster analysis using a discrete Poisson space-time probability model, accounting for underlying estimated dog and livestock densities, identified 13 significant clusters (p<.05). These included four long-term clusters lasting more than 8years in duration and seven short-term clusters lasting less than 2years, with the remaining two clusters being of intermediate length. Outside of these endemic clusters, wildlife outbreaks in the remainder of South Africa were often less than one and a half years in duration most likely due to the rapid decline of wildlife vectors, especially jackals associated with rabies infection. Domestic dogs accounted for 59.8% of cases, with domestic cats (3.2%), livestock (21.1%) and wildlife (15.8%) making up the remainder of the cases. Yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata) was the most frequently affected wildlife species, followed by bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), meerkat (Suricata suricatta) and aardwolf (Proteles cristatus). Rabies in wildlife species followed different spatial distributions: black-backed jackal cases were more common in the north-western parts of South Africa, yellow mongoose cases more frequent in central South Africa, and bat-eared fox and aardwolf cases were more frequent in southern and western South Africa. Clusters often spanned several provinces, showing the importance of coordinated rabies control campaigns across administrative boundaries, and high-risk areas were highlighted for rabies in South Africa.

Home range and use of residential gardens by yellow mongoose Cynictis penicillata in an urban environment

Urban areas provide small carnivores with an abundance of resources and reduced predation risk, resulting in higher population densities. Urban animals tend to have greatly reduced home range sizes in response to increased resource availability. We investigated the home range size of yellow mongooses Cynictis penicillata in an urban area and determined whether their home ranges overlapped with human residential areas. We studied the home range sizes of 8 collared and GPS tracked individuals in the Meyersdal Nature Area in South Africa; an area divided into two residential wildlife estates (4 individuals per estate): an Eco-Estate that was a built up residential area interspersed with natural areas; and a Nature Estate with reduced contact between animals and human residential areas. We used three methods to calculate home range size, namely Minimum Convex Polygon, Kernel Density Estimates and Local Convex Hull. Home range size was slightly larger in the Nature Estate, and male home ranges were larger than those of females. Compared to previous studies, home range sizes were considerably smaller in our study. Seasonal variation in home range could not be statistically compared, but, similar to non-urban populations, we observed smaller home range sizes during the breeding season (winter and spring) and larger sizes during the non-breeding season (autumn and summer). The overlap of home ranges with residential areas, and the record of multiple GPS fixes of tracked individuals within human residential gardens, was evident in both estates but to a greater extent in the Eco-Estate. Seasonal overlap with residential areas was greatest during autumn and winter. We showed that yellow mongooses modify their home ranges in response to urbanisation, which might be a consequence of abundant and easily accessible available resources, particularly during colder periods.

Spatiotemporal co-occurrence and overlap of two sympatric mongoose species in an urban environment

Abstract Small carnivores are becoming increasingly common in urban areas. What has received less attention is whether and how resource partitioning among sympatric species in urban areas facilitates their coexistence. We examined the spatial, temporal and combined spatiotemporal occurrence and overlap of co-existing yellow mongoose Cynictis penicillata and slender mongoose Galerella sanguinea in an urban estate in South Africa. The reserve comprised two parts, an Eco-Estate where human residential and natural areas are interspersed and wildlife has greater contact with people, and a Nature Estate, where contact is reduced by palisade fencing between people and natural areas. Using photographic data from camera traps collected over 11 consecutive months, we found a moderate level of spatial overlap between the mongoose species. Differences between the species occurred at a finer habitat scale: yellow mongooses were more common in open habitats located near human residents whereas the slender mongooses were more common in covered areas further away from human residents. The detection probability of the yellow mongoose, however, was greater than that of the slender mongoose, and the occupancy probability of the slender mongoose was reduced in the presence of the yellow mongoose. Although both species demonstrated bimodal diurnal peaks in activity, they varied in their active periods, with temporal overlap being greater during colder than warmer months. No complete spatiotemporal overlap (occurrence in the same place at the same time/within a 10-min period) occurred. This may have been as a result of the difference in detection and occupancy probabilities of the two species. Resource availability (food), however, appears to influence the different habitat selection, space use, and activity patterns of yellow and slender mongoose in the study area. Therefore, we conclude that partitioning along the spatial and somewhat on the temporal dimensions aids in the coexistence of these mongoose species in an urban environment.

Flexible Use of Urban Resources by the Yellow Mongoose Cynictis penicillata.

Simple SummaryMany species have become locally extinct because of urbanization. However, many thrive in urban areas because they originally have, or they have acquired, features that enable them to exploit urban areas. We studied the ecology of the urban yellow mongoose, a recent urban dweller in parts of South Africa. We investigated the diet, space use and activity habits of yellow mongooses, and whether they exploit residential gardens. Similar to their non-urban counterparts, yellow mongooses in urban areas fed on insects, particularly in spring/summer. The presence of human food items, small mammals and birds in scats increased during autumn/winter, when insects are known to be less abundant. Camera trap footage revealed that, similar to their non-urban counterparts, yellow mongooses in urban areas were more prevalent in open habitats, and showed an early morning, late afternoon diurnal activity pattern. These urban mongooses were more frequently near human residences than at sites further away. Their home range size was considerably smaller than that of non-urban mongooses and overlapped more with human residents during autumn/winter than during spring/summer. Overall, the urban yellow mongooses displayed characteristics similar to non-urban mongooses, particularly in their diet, habitat use and activity patterns. Yet, they modified their diet by including human food, occurred in gardens, and had smaller home ranges, indicating modifications for urban life.Several species are negatively impacted by urbanization, while others thrive in urban areas by exploiting anthropogenic habitats matching their pre-existing niche preferences, or by modifying their behavior for urban life. We studied the ecology of a recent urban resident, the yellow mongoose, in an urban ecological estate in South Africa. We assessed urban dwelling yellow mongooses’ diet, spatial and temporal occurrence, home range size, and whenever possible, compared our findings to the published literature on their non-urban conspecifics. Additionally, we evaluated occurrence overlap with residential gardens. Similar to their non-urban counterparts, scat analyses revealed that yellow mongooses in urban areas fed mainly on insects, particularly during spring/summer. In the colder months, anthropogenic items, small mammals and birds in scats increased. Camera trap surveys showed that the mongooses were common in open habitats, similar to previous studies, and exhibited a species-typical bimodal diurnal activity pattern. The occurrence of these mongooses was greater near human residences than at sites further away. Home range sizes were considerably smaller than those of non-urban mongoose. Mongoose occurred in residential gardens, more so during the colder months. The urban yellow mongooses’ diet, habitat preference and activity patterns were similar to non-urban conspecifics. Nonetheless, the exploitation of anthropogenic food sources, occurrence in residential gardens and smaller home range sizes showed that they respond flexibly to urbanization, and these modifications might aid in their success in urban areas.

Dietary overlap of two sympatric African mongoose species in an urban environment

Abstract Urbanisation creates challenges and opportunities for wildlife. Globally, small carnivores have colonised urban spaces, but we do not know whether or how sympatric carnivores partition resources in order to co-exist. We studied the diet and degree of dietary overlap of two sympatric herpestid mongooses – yellow, Cynictis penicillata, and slender, Galerella sanguinea mongoose – in a small urban nature area in South Africa. The composition of 2600 yellow and 2000 slender mongoose scats was sampled over a year in an Eco-Estate, where wildlife have contact with humans, and a Nature Estate, where contact is reduced. We analysed the frequency of occurrence of invertebrates, mammals, birds, plants and anthropogenic items in scats. Invertebrates and mammals were most abundant for both species in the Nature Estate and for slender mongoose in the Eco-Estate, while anthropogenic items were more prevalent in yellow mongoose scats in the Eco-Estate. Both species included anthropogenic items in their diet in the Eco-Estate only. Scat components varied seasonally. In summer, invertebrates were more abundant in scats of both species, yet during the colder months, invertebrates decreased and vertebrates (more so in the slender mongoose) and anthropogenic items (more so in the yellow mongoose) increased. Dietary overlap was greatest in summer and lowest in winter. Nonetheless, the specialised slender mongoose diet and a generalist yellow mongoose diet potentially facilitates their co-existence.

Food choice and feeding on carrion in two African mongoose species in an urban environment

Urbanisation negatively affects many species, yet small carnivores may flourish in urban spaces because of accessible resources and a reduction of predators. Food choices of urban carnivores might be influenced by the availability and abundance of anthropogenic food resources and the co-existence of competing species. We studied the food selection and feeding on carrion of the yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata) and slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea) in a small urban reserve in South Africa. In cafeteria-style food choice tests, both species preferred meat and insects over bread, dog kibble, chicken eggs, and plants; however, yellow mongoose in a more urbanised area preferred bread to insects. Yellow mongoose had a shorter latency to approach and consume provided food compared to slender mongoose. At carrion-baited stations, slender mongoose were more prevalent at carcasses and displayed aggression and competitive exclusion of yellow mongoose. Slender mongoose fed more on carcasses during the colder months than warmer months when they fed on available insects around and on carcasses. The greater consumption of anthropogenic items by yellow mongoose and the preference by slender mongoose for feeding on carcasses provide evidence of possible resource partitioning, which may aid in the co-existence of these sympatric herpestids in urban areas.

Rabies of canid biotype in wild dog (Lycaon pictus) and spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa in 2014-2015: Diagnosis, possible origins and implications for control.

Both domestic and wild carnivore species are commonly diagnosed with rabies virus (RABV) infection in South Africa. Although the majority of confirmed rabies cases in wild carnivore species are reported from the yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata), the rest are from other wild carnivores including the highly endangered wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Lyssavirus infection was confirmed in two wild dogs and a spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) in the Madikwe Game Reserve, North West province in South Africa, in 2014 and 2015, using a direct fluorescent antibody test and immunohistochemistry. There had been no new wild dog introductions to the Madikwe Game Reserve for many years and the wild dogs were last vaccinated against rabies approximately 11 years prior to the incident. The first euthanised wild dog was the last surviving of a break-away pack of 6, and the second was the last of a larger pack of 18, the rest of which died with no carcasses being found or carcasses too decomposed for sampling. Subsequent antigenic typing of the lyssaviruses indicated that they were canid RABVs. The RABVs originating from 22 wild carnivore species, 7 dogs, and a caprine, mostly from the North West province, were genetically characterised by targeting a partial region of the nucleoprotein gene. The nucleotide sequence analyses of these viruses and two previously characterised RABVs confirmed that the outbreak viruses were also canid rabies, phylogenetically clustering with virus isolates originating from black-backed jackals recovered between 2012 and 2015 from the North West province, and domestic dogs from neighbouring communal areas. The source(s) of the mortalities and possible reservoir host(s) for the virus could only be speculated upon from data on specific predator numbers, movements and behaviour, kills, park management and the changing environmental ecology, which were monitored closely in Madikwe over several years. The most likely rabies sources were from boundary fence contacts between wild carnivores within the park, with domestic dogs or cats and/or naturally occurring wild carnivores outside the park. The associated risk of zoonotic infection and threat to important and endangered predators may be mitigated through regional rabies control primarily in domestic dogs and cats, as well as by preventative vaccination of at-risk park employees and their pets. The importance of ongoing prophylactic rabies protection by regular vaccination of highly endangered wildlife carnivores and the submission of carcasses for rabies diagnosis of any wild or domestic animals behaving uncharacteristically or found dead is emphasised.

Characterization of Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus CC398 and mecC-positive CC130 from Zoo Animals in the United Kingdom.

Little is known about the characteristics and diseases associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in nondomestic animals. Four presumptive MRSA isolates, obtained from clinical (n = 3) and surveillance specimens (n = 1) from dwarf (Helogale parvula) and yellow mongooses (Cynictis penicillata) from a United Kingdom zoo, were analyzed by PCR for detection of mecA and mecC-mediated methicillin resistance, and virulence genes. Isolates were genotyped by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) and spa sequence typing. Three isolates, obtained from the dwarf mongooses, carried mecA, tetK, and fexA resistance and virulence genes (icaA, icaD, and sec) and were typed to SCCmec IVa, spa type t899, and clonal complex (CC) 398. The fourth MRSA isolate, obtained from the femoral bone marrow of a yellow mongoose showing postmortem findings consistent with septicemia, carried mecC and was oxacillin/cefoxitin susceptible, when tested at 37°C but showed a characteristic MRSA susceptibility profile at 25°C ± 2°C. Furthermore, this isolate exhibited a different genetic background (SCCmecXI/t843/CC130) and had biofilm-associated genes (bap, icaA, and icaD) and tetK tetracycline resistance genes. This work describes the first isolation of livestock-associated MRSA CC398 from two zoo mongoose species where it was associated with both clinical disease and colonization, and the first isolation of mecC MRSA from a zoo species in the United Kingdom. Both reports highlight the potential for zoo species to act as reservoirs for these zoonotic agents.

Competition and coexistence in a small carnivore guild.

The potential for strong competition among small sympatric carnivores results in a need for coexistence strategies whereby competitors partition along spatial, temporal and dietary axes as a means to reduce ecological overlaps. We determined spatial and temporal partitioning patterns of a guild of small African carnivores: the African wildcat Felis silvestris lybica, grey mongoose Galerella pulverulenta, small-spotted genet Genetta genetta, striped polecat Ictonyx striatus, and the yellow mongoose Cynictis penicillata. We quantified the degree of spatial and temporal co-occurrence of the small carnivores using camera trap data over a year-long period. Carnivores separated into two temporal groups: nocturnal species (wildcat, polecat and genet) and diurnal species (mongooses). In addition, carnivores within the same temporal group had strong patterns of reduced spatial co-occurrence. The smaller bodied carnivores showed lower co-occurrence with the larger bodied African wildcat than expected by chance, supporting the idea of dominant competitor avoidance. Thus, small carnivores likely minimise competitive interactions through spatio-temporal habitat partitioning.

Comparison of G protein sequences of South African street rabies viruses showing distinct progression of the disease in a mouse model of experimental rabies

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease and infections generally lead to a fatal encephalomyelitis in both humans and animals. In South Africa, domestic (dogs) and the wildlife (yellow mongoose) host species maintain the canid and mongoose rabies variants respectively. In this study, pathogenicity differences of South African canid and mongoose rabies viruses were investigated in a murine model, by assessing the progression of clinical signs and survivorship. Comparison of glycoprotein gene sequences revealed amino acid differences that may underpin the observed pathogenicity differences. Cumulatively, our results suggest that the canid rabies virus may be more neurovirulent in mice than the mongoose rabies variant.

Predator detection and dilution as benefits of associations between yellow mongooses and Cape ground squirrels

Associations among organisms are thought to form because the benefits, such as increased foraging efficiency or decreased risk of predation, outweigh any costs, such as resource competition. Though many interspecific associations have been described for closely related mammals, few studies have examined the associations between mammals in different orders. The yellow mongoose (Cynictus pencillata), a carnivore, and the Cape ground squirrel (Xerus inauris), a rodent, co-occur in arid and semi-arid South Africa where they share sleeping burrows, predators, a similar body size, and the capability to emit alarm calls in response to predators. To investigate enhanced predator avoidance as a potential benefit explaining the persistence of this association, we assessed individual mongoose vigilance alone and with squirrels or other mongooses, and with varying interspecific group size, using field observations. We also tested for responses to conspecific and heterospecific alarm calls in both study species using playback experiments. The proportion of time mongoose individuals spent vigilant decreased in the presence of squirrels or other mongooses and was negatively correlated with interspecific group size; a similar pattern was previously shown for conspecific groups of Cape ground squirrels. These results are predicted by both the dilution and collective detection hypotheses. In addition, hetero- and conspecific alarm calls elicited vigilance responses in both species. These results suggest that both species can benefit from the collective detection and dilution arising from their interspecific association and that this interspecific association could be mutualistic.

Flea diversity on small carnivores in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa

Small carnivores are parasitized by various ectoparasites that include fleas (Siphonaptera). To date few parasite studies in South Africa, and especially the Northern Cape, have focused on fleas, while those that have are biased by small sample sizes. In an attempt to address the paucity of information fleas were collected from five small carnivore species trapped at Loxton and Kimberley in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. The aim of the study was to contribute to current data on the flea diversity found on various small carnivore species. Small carnivores were trapped and while anesthetized the fleas were manually removed from the fur of the animals. In total 48 small carnivores were trapped of which 30 harboured fleas. Of the five flea species that were recorded the most numerous and prevalent was Echidnophaga gallinacea followed by Ctenocephalides connatus and Ctenocephalides damarensis. Fleas were more numerous and prevalent on the small-spotted cat, Felis nigripes, followed by the yellow mongoose, Cynictispenicillata. The flea community on the small carnivores consisted of fleas that prefer carnivores as principal hosts and also fleas that prefer rodents. The latter maybe acquired through predation on rodents.