Yellow Dung Fly Scathophaga Stercoraria Research Articles

A fungal parasite selects against body size but not fluctuating asymmetry in Swiss subalpine yellow dung flies

Evidence for selective disadvantages of large body size remains scarce in general. Previous studies of the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria have demonstrated strong positive sexual and fecundity selection on male and female size. Nevertheless, the body size of flies from a Swiss study population has declined by ~10% 1993–2009. Given substantial heritability of body size, this negative evolutionary response of an evidently positively selected trait suggests important selective factors being missed. An episodic epidemic outbreak of the fungus Entomophthora scatophagae permitted assessment of natural selection exerted by this fatal parasite. Fungal infection varied over the season from ~50% in the cooler and more humid spring and autumn to almost 0% in summer. The probability of dying from fungal infection increased with adult fly body size. Females never laid any eggs after infection, so there was no fungus effect on female fecundity beyond its impact on mortality. Large males showed their typical mating advantage in the field, but this positive sexual selection was nullified by fungal infection. Mean fluctuating asymmetry of paired appendages (legs, wings) did not affect the viability, fecundity or mating success of yellow dung flies in the field. This study documents rare parasite-mediated disadvantages of large-sized flies in the field. Reduced ability to combat parasites such as Entomophthora may be an immunity cost of large body size in dung flies, although the hypothesized trade-off between fluctuating asymmetry, a presumed indicator of developmental instability and environmental stress, and immunocompetence was not found here.

Replicated latitudinal clines in reproductive traits of European and North American yellow dung flies

Geographic variation in phenotypic traits is commonly correlated with spatial variation in the environment, e.g. seasonality and mean temperature, providing evidence that natural selection generates such patterns. In particular, both body size and egg size of ectothermic animals are commonly larger in northern climates, and temperature induces plastic responses in both traits. Size‐independent egg quality can also vary with latitude, though this is rarely investigated. For the widespread yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae) we investigated whether there are latitudinal clines in reproductive traits (clutch size, egg size and egg composition), whether these clines are due to variation in body and/or egg size, and whether such clines replicate across independent experiments performed on different continents (North America and Europe). Egg size generally increased with latitude (especially in Europe), an effect largely explained by body size of the mother, while clutch size did not; overall reproductive effort thus increased with latitude. Both the absolute and relative (correcting for egg size) amount of egg protein increased with latitude, egg glycogen decreased with latitude, while latitudinal trends for egg lipids and total egg energy content were complex and non‐linear. Altitude sometimes showed relationships analogous to those of latitude (egg proteins and glycogen) but occasionally opposite (egg size), possibly because latitude and altitude are negatively related among populations of this cold‐adapted species. There was no evidence of a tradeoff between egg size and number across latitudinal populations; if anything, the relationship was positive. All traits, including body and egg size, varied with rearing temperature (12°C, 18°C, 24°C), generally following the temperature–size rule. Clines based on common garden rearing, thus reflecting genetic differentiation, were qualitatively but not always quantitatively consistent between continents, and were similar across rearing temperatures, suggesting they evolved due to natural selection, although the concrete selective mechanisms involved require further study.

Geographic clines in wing morphology relate to colonization history in New World but not Old World populations of yellow dung flies.

Geographic clines offer insights about putative targets and agents of natural selection as well as tempo and mode of adaptation. However, demographic processes can lead to clines that are indistinguishable from adaptive divergence. Using the widespread yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae), we examine quantitative genetic differentiation (QST ) of wing shape across North America, Europe, and Japan, and compare this differentiation with that of ten microsatellites (FST ). Morphometric analyses of 28 populations reared at three temperatures revealed significant thermal plasticity, sexual dimorphism, and geographic differentiation in wing shape. In North America morphological differentiation followed the decline in microsatellite variability along the presumed route of recent colonization from the southeast to the northwest. Across Europe, where S. stercoraria presumably existed for much longer time and where no molecular pattern of isolation by distance was evident, clinal variation was less pronounced despite significant morphological differentiation (QST >FST ). Shape vector comparisons further indicate that thermal plasticity (hot-to-cold) does not mirror patterns of latitudinal divergence (south-to-north), as might have been expected under a scenario with temperature as the major agent of selection. Our findings illustrate the importance of detailed phylogeographic information when interpreting geographic clines of dispersal traits in an adaptive evolutionary framework.

Life history traits, but not body size, vary systematically along latitudinal gradients on three continents in the widespread yellow dung fly

Large‐scale clinal variation in body size and other life‐history traits is common enough to have stimulated the postulation of several eco‐geographical rules. Whereas some clinal patterns are clearly adaptive, the causes of others remain unclear. We present a comprehensive intraspecific population comparison for the cosmopolitan yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae) to check for consistent world‐wide patterns. Common garden assessment of various life history traits permitted continental comparison of (clinal) quantitative genetic differentiation (Qst) with putatively neutral genetic differentiation (Fst) derived from field‐caught flies. Latitudinal clines in fly development time, growth rate, and overwintering propensity were consistent among North American, European and Japanese populations. Increased winter dormancy incidence and duration at higher latitude, combined with a faster growth rate and shorter development time, suggest that flies are adaptated to season length more than to temperature. The resulting body size clines, in contrast, were not very consistent; importantly, they were not negative, as expected under seasonal constraints, but flat or even positive clines. Quantitative genetic differentiation QST exceeded neutral molecular variation FST for most traits, suggesting that natural selection plays a consistent role in mediating global dung fly life histories. We conclude that faster growth and development in response to shorter growing seasons at higher latitudes may indirectly counteract expected direct effects of temperature on body‐size, potentially resulting in flat or inconsistent body size clines in nature.

Parasite-mediated selection promotes small body size in yellow dung flies

Evidence for selective disadvantages of large body size remains scarce in general. Previous phenomenological studies of the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria have demonstrated strong positive sexual and fecundity selection on male and female size. Nevertheless, the body size of flies from a Swiss study population has declined by almost 10% from 1993 to 2009. Given substantial heritability of body size, this negative evolutionary response of a trait that is measurably positively selected suggests important selective factors being missed. We took advantage of a periodic epidemic outbreak of the fungus Entomophthora scatophagae to assess selection exerted by this fatal parasite. Fungal infection varied over the season from ca. 50% in the cooler and more humid spring and autumn to almost 0% in summer. The probability of dying from fungal infection increased with adult body size. Females never laid any eggs after infection, so there was no fungus effect on female fecundity beyond its impact on mortality. Large males showed the typical mating advantage in the field, but this pattern of positive sexual selection was nullified by fungal infection. Mean fluctuating asymmetry of paired appendages (legs, wings) did not affect the viability, fecundity or mating success of yellow dung flies in the field. Our study demonstrates rare size-selective parasite-mediated disadvantages of large adult body size in the field. Reduced ability to combat parasites such as Entomophthora may be an immunity cost of large body size in dung flies, although the hypothesized trade-off between fluctuating asymmetry, a presumed indicator of developmental instability and environmental stress, and immunocompetence was not found here.

Critical weight mediates sex-specific body size plasticity and sexual dimorphism in the yellow dung flyScathophaga stercoraria(Diptera: Scathophagidae)

Ultimate factors driving insect body size are rather well understood, while-apart from a few model species-the underlying physiological and developmental mechanisms received less attention. We investigate the physiological basis of adaptive size variation in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria, which shows pronounced male-biased sexual size dimorphism and strong body size plasticity. We estimate variation of a major physiological threshold, the critical weight, which is the mass at which a larva initiates pupariation. Critical weight was associated with sexual size dimorphism and sex-specific plasticity, and is thus a likely target of selection on adult size. Detailed larval growth trajectories derived from individuals raised at two food and temperature treatments further reveal that sex-specific size plasticity is mediated by faster initial growth of males that later becomes reduced by higher male weight loss during the wandering stage. We further demonstrate that integral growth rates, which are typically calculated as simple ratios of egg-to-adult development time and adult weight, do not necessarily well reflect variation in instantaneous growth rates. We illustrate the importance of detailed assessments of ontogenetic growth trajectories for the understanding of adaptive size variation and discuss the mechanistic basis of size determination in shaping sex-specific phenotypic plasticity.

Stage- and sex-specific heat tolerance in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria

Thermal tolerance varies at all hierarchical levels of biological organization: among species, populations, individuals, and even within individuals. Age- or developmental stage- and sex-specific thermal effects have received relatively little attention in the literature, despite being crucial for understanding thermal adaptation in nature and responses to global warming. We document stage- and sex- specific heat tolerance in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae), a species common throughout the northern hemisphere that generally favours cool climates. Exposure of eggs to temperatures up to 32°C did not affect larval hatching rate, but subsequent egg-to-adult survival at a benign temperature was reduced. Permanent transfer from benign (18°C) to hot temperatures (up to 31°C) at different larval and pupal stages strongly decreased egg-to-adult survival, though survival continuously improved the later the transfer occurred. Temporary transfer for only two days increased mortality more weakly, survival being lowest when temperature stress was imposed early during the larval or pupal stages. Adult flies provided with sugar and water tolerated 31°C longer than previously thought (5 days in males to 9 days in females). Eggs were thus less susceptible to thermal stress than larvae, pupae or adults, in agreement with the hypothesis that more mobile stages require less physiological protection against heat because they can behaviourally thermoregulate. The probability of mating, of laying a clutch, and hatching success were generally independently reduced by exposure of females or males to warm temperatures (24°C) during the juvenile or adult stages, with some interactions evident. High temperature stress thus affects survival differentially depending on when it occurs during the juvenile or the pre-reproductive adult life stage, and affects reproductive success via the mating behaviour of both sexes, female physiology in terms of oviposition, and fertility via sperm and/or egg quality. Our results illustrate that temperature stress, even when moderate and temporary, during early development can have profound lethal and non-lethal fitness-consequences later in life.

Size-dependent insect flight energetics at different sugar supplies

Under most circumstances, large body size confers a higher fitness and is positively selected, whereas selection against large size is empirically poorly documented. Physiologically, according to the ¾ power law, larger animals have lower relative but higher absolute energy demands, such that large body size may become disadvantageous, particularly under fast locomotion in food-limited environments. After a period of initial feeding on different sugar concentrations, we investigated size-dependent energy content (reserves) at baseline and of females unflown (i.e. resting) or flown for 18 h in two (replicate) insect species: the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria and the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti. Tethered adults of various sizes were tested in a flight mill. In both species, teneral glycogen, sugar, and lipid content increased with sugar availability, and isometrically or even hyper-allometrically (slope > 1) with body size. Activity treatment also revealed the expected consumption effects. Both species increased their flight distance with sugar supply, although only larger mosquitoes flew longer. Crucially, larger females of both species disproportionately exhausted more glycogen and sugars (but not lipid) during flight. The mosquitoes appeared to adjust their flight more finely to their size-dependent energy reserves at all sugar availabilities, whereas, in the dung flies, size-dependent energy demands were detectable only with a low but not with an overly high sugar supply. Although we found a greater absolute and relative locomotory energy demand for the larger flies, which is in agreement with interspecific patterns in insects, this was (more than) compensated by their greater baseline energy reserves, resulting in the greater net flying capacity of larger individuals. Consequently, we found no evidence for energetic mechanisms limiting the performance of large flying insects under food limitation. The differences between the two species presumably relate to mosquitoes inherently being long distance flyers and dung flies being short distance flyers.

Infections with Wolbachia and Spiroplasma in the Scathophagidae and other Muscoidea

The microbes Wolbachia and Spiroplasma are common reproductive parasites of arthropods and may strongly influence reproduction of infected hosts and also impact on reproductive isolation. Such infections could hence influence results of many studies assessing reproductive behaviour and fitness of possible hosts, as well as reproductive isolation. Previous work indicates that infections with the microbes Wolbachia and Spiroplasma are common in the Drosophilidae. However, extensive and targeted surveys of other Dipteran families are lacking. Here we survey the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria and a range of other species from the Muscoidea (families Scathophagidae, Anthomyiidae, Fanniidae and Muscidae) collected in the field or obtained from museum collections for infection with the widespread reproductive parasites Wolbachia and Spiroplasma. Both have been shown to be heritable symbionts and affect reproduction in other Diptera. S. stercoraria is a very important model for the study of sexual selection, and in particular of postcopulatory processes, as it has played a major role in the history of research on sperm competition and cryptic female choice. Infections with Wolbachia were found to be widespread across the Muscoidea, whereas infections with Spiroplasma were rarer. We discuss the consequences of these findings and directions for future research on the impact of reproductive parasites on host reproduction in the Scathophagidae.

Salivary gland hypertrophy virus of house flies in Denmark: prevalence, host range, and comparison with a Florida isolate

House flies (Musca domestica) infected with Musca domestica salivary gland hypertrophy virus (MdSGHV) were found in fly populations collected from 12 out of 18 Danish livestock farms that were surveyed in 2007 and 2008. Infection rates ranged from 0.5% to 5% and averaged 1.2%. None of the stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans), rat-tail maggot flies (Eristalis tenax) or yellow dung flies (Scathophaga stercoraria) collected from MdSGHV-positive farms displayed characteristic salivary gland hypertrophy (SGH). In laboratory transmission tests, SGH symptoms were not observed in stable flies, flesh flies (Sarcophaga bullata), black dump flies (Hydrotaea aenescens), or face flies (Musca autumnalis) that were injected with MdSGHV from Danish house flies. However, in two species (stable fly and black dump fly), virus injection resulted in suppression of ovarian development similar to that observed in infected house flies, and injection of house flies with homogenates prepared from the salivary glands or ovaries of these species resulted in MdSGHV infection of the challenged house flies. Mortality of virus-injected stable flies was the highest among the five species tested. Virulence of Danish and Florida isolates of MdSGHV was similar with three virus delivery protocols, as a liquid food bait (in sucrose, milk, or blood), sprayed onto the flies in a Potter spray tower, or by immersiion in a crude homogenate of infected house flies. The most effective delivery system was immersion in a homogenate of ten infected flies/ml of water, resulting in 56.2% and 49.6% infection of the house flies challenged with the Danish and Florida strains, respectively.

Effects of maternal and offspring environmental conditions on growth, development and diapause in latitudinal yellow dung fly populations

Extensive phenotypic plasticity can allow populations to persist in changing environ- ments. Maternal effects represent one important but often neglected source of phenotypic plasticity. Mothers and offspring of 2 high- (northern Norway and central Sweden) and 2 low- (northern and southern Spain) latitude yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae) popula- tions were exposed to cold (12°C) and warm (18°C) temperatures and to short (8 h light:16 h dark) and long (16 h light:8 h dark) photoperiods in a fully blocked, split-brood common garden design of 8 treatment combinations. We also considered the role of energy content and size of the eggs in pro- ducing cross-generational maternal effects on offspring diapause, development time and growth rate. The incidence of diapause strongly declined towards the south, and the northernmost popula- tion grew and developed faster in response to perceived seasonal time constraints. There was strong population-specific phenotypic plasticity of all traits in response to offspring temperature and, more weakly, to offspring photoperiod, indicating a genetic basis of plasticity as well as genetic differenti- ation among populations. There were additional subtle cross-generational maternal effects exerted primarily by the lipid content of the eggs, largely independent of maternal treatment and population. Phenotypic plasticity of life-history traits in the yellow dung fly is predominantly influenced by the growing conditions during larval development, but populations can also respond to changing envi- ronments via trans-generational maternal effects.

The Karyotype of the Yellow Dung Fly,Scathophaga stercoraria, a Model Organism in Studies of Sexual Selection

Knowledge of karyotypical characteristics of a species is essential for understanding how sexually selected and sexually antagonistic traits evolve. The yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria L. (Diptera: Scathophagidae) is an established model system for studies of sexual selection and sexual conflict, but karyotypical data are lacking to date. Here, the karyotype of S. stercoraria was characterized using conventional Giemsa-staining and C-banding techniques. The diploid chromosome set consists of 6 pairs of bi-armed meta- or submetacentric chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are the largest chromosomes and constitute 30% of the total length of the diploid set in females and about 25% in males. Males are the heterogametic sex, and the length of the Y chromosome is about three-quarters of that of the X chromosome. C-banding revealed that both sex chromosomes are largely heterochromatic. In contrast, in the five autosome pairs, heterochromatin is limited to narrow bands in the centromeric regions. This karyotypic information will help provide a more profound understanding of the inheritance of phenotypic variation in reproductive traits and the chromosomal locations of underlying genes.

Systematic ambiguity in the well-established model system insect Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae): sister species S. soror revealed by molecular evidence

Even for well-established insect model systems, such as the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Scathophagidae), there may be hidden systematic ambiguities that require clarification. Dung flies from the Afrotropical Region have been considered (i) as con-specific and not different from all the other Holarctic Scathophaga stercoraria; (ii) as a local and peculiar African subspecies of S. stercoraria (Scathophaga stercoraria soror Wiedemann), or (iii) as a separate valid species (Scathophaga soror Wiedemann). Our study represents an attempt, based on mitochondrial (COI, 12S, and 16S), nuclear (ITS2) as well as microsatellite markers, to clarify this problem. Results strongly suggest that S. soror is a separate taxon from S. stercoraria. Due to the importance of S. stercoraria as a model system for studies in ecology, behaviour and evolution, the systematic position of S. soror (relative to S. stercoraria) is not solely of interest for systematists, but for evolutionary ecologists as well.

A review of the natural history and laboratory culture methods for the yellow dung fly, Scathophaga stercoraria.

The yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (L.) (Diptera: Scathophagidae) is a widespread and locally abundant fly associated with the dung of large mammals, especially farm animals. This species has recently become a standard test organism for evaluating toxic effects of veterinary pharmaceuticals in livestock dung. In this context, a review of its natural history and a general description of the field and laboratory rearing methods of this species are provided here to benefit the scientific community as well as government regulators and applicants of eco-toxicological studies. For guidance, means and ranges are included for all relevant standard life history traits stemming from previously published data on Swiss populations.

Molecular and quantitative genetic differentiation across Europe in yellow dung flies

Relating geographic variation in quantitative traits to underlying population structure is crucial for understanding processes driving population differentiation, isolation and ultimately speciation. Our study represents a comprehensive population genetic survey of the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria, an important model organism for evolutionary and ecological studies, over a broad geographic scale across Europe (10 populations from the Swiss Alps to Iceland). We simultaneously assessed differentiation in five quantitative traits (body size, development time, growth rate, proportion of diapausing individuals and duration of diapause), to compare differentiation in neutral marker loci (F(ST)) to that of quantitative traits (Q(ST)). Despite long distances and uninhabitable areas between sampled populations, population structuring was very low but significant (F(ST) = 0.007, 13 microsatellite markers; F(ST) = 0.012, three allozyme markers; F(ST) = 0.007, markers combined). However, only two populations (Iceland and Sweden) showed significant allelic differentiation to all other populations. We estimated high levels of gene flow [effective number of migrants (Nm) = 6.2], there was no isolation by distance, and no indication of past genetic bottlenecks (i.e. founder events) and associated loss of genetic diversity in any northern or island population. In contrast to the low population structure, quantitative traits were strongly genetically differentiated among populations, following latitudinal clines, suggesting that selection is responsible for life history differentiation in yellow dung flies across Europe.

Sexual conflict over copula timing: a mathematical model and a test in the yellow dung fly

Sexual conflict over mating occurrence, timing, or duration is common in animals. This explains conspicuous female mate rejection behavior in many species, often involving shaking, fighting, and occasional forced copulations. We present a simple model that generates predictions about whether and when copulation occurs in such conflict situations and how much female rejection behavior should be observed. Predictions depend on 2 underlying parameters affecting female resistance and male persistence. We supply 2 qualitative tests of the model using the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae). We manipulated adult age, body size (large and small), and adult food availability (low and high), independently in males and females, staging replicate pairings of all treatment combinations. In agreement with predictions of our model, shaking duration first increased to a maximum at intermediate age, when the average female copulated, and then decreased again. Contrary to expectation, body size did not affect copulation timing, female resistance, or male persistence. As predicted, adult food limitation delayed sexual maturity and hence prolonged female resistance, resulting in later copulations after more shaking. However, although food limitation equally delayed the increase in male persistence with age, copulation also occurred later after more shaking, opposite to the model prediction. We conclude that shaking is driven primarily by female age and male responses to it. Although female shaking can initially successfully deter males in S. stercoraria, this behavior is subtle and has apparently shifted function from an effective means of mate choice to a signal of nonreceptivity, though its importance in nature remains unclear. Key words: body size, copulation duration, food limitation, Scathophaga stercoraria, Scatophaga, sexual conflict, sexual selection. [Behav Ecol]

The quantitative genetics of two life history trade-offs in the yellow dung fly in abundant and limited food environments

The trade-offs between body size and development time and between egg size and egg number (clutch size) are central to life history theory, but evidence for them, particularly in terms of genetic correlations, is equivocal. For the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae), we investigated variation in phenotypic and genetic variances and covariances, i.e. heritabilities and genetic correlations, of these life history traits (plus diapause) in benign and stressful larval field or adult laboratory food environments. We found both trade-offs to be weak, as evidenced by low phenotypic and genetic correlations, but stronger in the food limited environments. Broad sense heritabilities were generally significant for all traits considered, whereas the narrow sense heritabilities for egg and clutch size were nil. With regard to the question of how environmental stress affects heritabilities, we found a whole range of responses within one single species depending on the traits considered. All three possible patterns occurred, i.e. increased h2 due to increased V G or decreased $$V_{P^{\prime}}$$ decreased h2 due to increased $$V_{P^{\prime}}$$ and no change in h2 due to increased V G and V P . These can be explained by the particular ecological circumstances yellow dung flies face in their natural environment. Nevertheless, the majority of patterns was consistent with the idea that stressful conditions amplify phenotypic differences between genotypes. Such variable responses of traits even within one organism underscores the complexity of this issue and may well explain the multiple patterns found in various organisms.

How Important Is Sexual Conflict?

Next article No AccessHow Important Is Sexual Conflict?David Hosken and Rhonda SnookDavid Hosken Search for more articles by this author and Rhonda Snook Search for more articles by this author 1. Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter in Cornwall, Tremough, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9EZ, United Kingdom;2. Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Alfred Denny Building, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United KingdomPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The American Naturalist Volume 165, Number S5May 2005HOW IMPORTANT IS SEXUAL CONFLICT?A Special Issue Edited by David Hosken and Rhonda Snook Published for The American Society of Naturalists Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/429355 Views: 112Total views on this site Citations: 25Citations are reported from Crossref © 2005 by The University of Chicago.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Marcus Lee, Carlota Solano Udina, Lars-Anders Hansson Fear of sex: sexual conflict exposed as avoidance in a parthenogenetic invertebrate, Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 75, no.88 (Jul 2021).https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-021-03054-9David J. Hosken, C. 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Effects of temperature on cell size and number in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria

(1) A number of hypotheses suggest that the temperature-size rule (larger at cooler temperatures), and consequently Bergmann clines in whole-organism body size (larger at higher latitudes), may be a mere consequence of processes at the cellular level, i.e., a physiological constraint. (2) We show that in the yellow dung fly, Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae), the temperature-size rule holds for wing cell and ommatidia size. Increases in cell number made up two-thirds (eye) to three-quarters (wing) of the increase in organ size. Temperature effects on body size can be fully explained by its effects on cell size and number. (3) Our study adds to the generality of previous results in Drosophila spp. The physiological constraint hypothesis remains viable as a proximate, non-adaptive explanation for the temperature-size rule in ectotherms.

How Important Is Sexual Conflict?

Next article No AccessHow Important Is Sexual Conflict?David Hosken and Rhonda SnookDavid Hosken Search for more articles by this author and Rhonda Snook Search for more articles by this author 1. Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter in Cornwall, Tremough, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9EZ, United Kingdom;2. Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Alfred Denny Building, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United KingdomPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The American Naturalist Volume 165, Number S5May 2005HOW IMPORTANT IS SEXUAL CONFLICT?A Special Issue Edited by David Hosken and Rhonda Snook Published for The American Society of Naturalists Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/429355 Views: 127Total views on this site Citations: 25Citations are reported from Crossref © 2005 by The University of Chicago.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Marcus Lee, Carlota Solano Udina, Lars-Anders Hansson Fear of sex: sexual conflict exposed as avoidance in a parthenogenetic invertebrate, Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 75, no.88 (Jul 2021).https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-021-03054-9David J. Hosken, C. Ruth Archer, Clarissa M. House, Nina Wedell Penis evolution across species: divergence and diversity, Nature Reviews Urology 16, no.22 (Nov 2018): 98–106.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41585-018-0112-zRebecah E. Ford, Stephen C. Weeks, E. Hebets Intersexual conflict in androdioecious clam shrimp: Do androdioecious hermaphrodites evolve to avoid mating with males?, Ethology 124, no.55 (Apr 2018): 357–364.https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12738Linda C. Hernández Duran, Gonzalo E. Fajardo Medina, Luz S. Fuentes Quintero Mating Opportunities in Sangalopsis veliterna Females: Costs and Benefits, Journal of Insect Science 14, no.112112 (Aug 2014): 1–9.https://doi.org/10.1673/031.014.112Akanksha Singh, Bashisth N. Singh Role of sexual selection in speciation in Drosophila, Genetica 142, no.11 (Dec 2013): 23–41.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10709-013-9751-4Krista M. Milich, Janice M. Bahr, Rebecca M. Stumpf, Colin A. Chapman Timing is everything: expanding the cost of sexual attraction hypothesis, Animal Behaviour 88 (Feb 2014): 219–224.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.11.029Ryne A. Palombit Sexual Conflict in Nonhuman Primates, (Jan 2014): 191–280.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800286-5.00005-5Abderrahman Khila, Ehab Abouheif, Locke Rowe Function, Developmental Genetics, and Fitness Consequences of a Sexually Antagonistic Trait, Science 336, no.60816081 (May 2012): 585–589.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1217258Adrian L. O'Loghlen, Stephen I. Rothstein, Jane M. Waterman When Less Is Best: Female Brown-Headed Cowbirds Prefer Less Intense Male Displays, PLoS ONE 7, no.55 (May 2012): e36130.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036130Rebecca M. Stumpf, Rodolfo Martinez-Mota, Krista M. Milich, Nicoletta Righini, Milena R. Shattuck Sexual conflict in primates, Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 20, no.22 (Apr 2011): 62–75.https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20297Matthew D. 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Ward Postcopulatory Selection in the Yellow Dung Fly Scathophaga stercoraria (L.) and the Mate‐Now‐Choose‐Later Mechanism of Cryptic Female Choice, (Jan 2007): 343–369.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3454(07)37007-1A.V. Peretti, A. Córdoba-Aguilar On the value of fine-scaled behavioural observations for studies of sexual coercion, Ethology Ecology & Evolution 19, no.11 (Jan 2007): 77–86.https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2007.9522583W. Eberhard Sexually antagonistic coevolution in insects is associated with only limited morphological diversity, Journal of Evolutionary Biology 19, no.33 (May 2006): 657–681.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.01057.xSergey Gavrilets, Takehiko I Hayashi The dynamics of two- and three-way sexual conflicts over mating, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 361, no.14661466 (Jan 2006): 345–354.https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2005.1792David J. 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