Years Of Primary Education Research Articles

The Impact of Lockdown in Cyberbullying in Primary Education: Transitions of Cyberbullying and Bullying.

The COVID-19 pandemic triggered a worldwide socio-sanitary crisis, continuing to impact societies worldwide. With many school systems shifted to online education, the current study presents a unique opportunity to investigate relevant phenomena related to serious health issues during the schooling and later in life, cyberbullying and bullying. This study began just before the COVID-19 lockdown was declared and resumed 5 months later allowing to explore 2 main objectives: first, to explore whether cyberbullying increased during the lockdown, and second, to analyze transitions from to time of bullying and cyberbullying. The participants included 792 students from sixth and seventh years of Primary Education (Meanage = 10.81, SD = 0.85) in Ecuador. This is a quantitative longitudinal study. Cyberbullying and bullying scales were used for data collection before the lockdown in January and February 2020 (T1), and after 5 months of lockdown, at the end of the same academic year in July 2020 (T2). Descriptive, comparative and predictive analyses, a latent transition analysis was used to identify latent status of cyberbullying and bullying behavior at T1 and T2. The results revealed a significant increase of cyberbullying after 5 months of the lockdown. Interestingly, only a small percentage of students who were uninvolved in cyberbullying and bullying in T1 remained uninvolved in T2. The discussion explores the dynamics of cyberbullying involvement and examines changes in the roles and groups of bullying and cyberbullying after 5 months of lockdown. The political- and school-related implications of these findings are thoroughly discussed.

Genero-ekitaterako bideak marrazten hezkuntzan: Erdi Aroko historiako gaien analisia eta proposamena

Feminism is a social movement that has managed to bring about great changes in society in recent decades. Even so, the gender perspective has not been adequately inserted in the classroom in many areas, especially in educational textbooks. With the aim of going deeper into the subject and finding out the current situation in Primary Education classes, ten didactic units about the Middle Ages, belonging to Social Science books for 5th year of Primary Education that are currently being used have been analysed. From the results obtained, a lack of equity in terms of male and female representation was detected. Thus, it is established that there is a need for a review and change in the teaching material so that it participates in the creation of a fairer, more equitable and critical society.

Self-perception of efficacy and attitudes towards physical activity and sport in schoolchildren

This study aimed to know the self-perception and attitudes towards physical activity and sport in Primary Education (PE) and Secondary Education (SE) schoolchildren from educational centres in Cantabria, depending on sex and educational stage. A total of 1,164 students participated (387 from 5th and 6th years of PE and 777 from SE) aged between 10 and 17 years (M = 12.92; SD = 1.92). An ad hoc questionnaire of 11 questions on self-perception (6 items) and attitudes towards physical activity and sport (5 items) was used. PE students have a better self-perception and attitude towards physical activity and sport than SE students in all the variables studied, except for the attitude that “The practice of physical-sports activity is good for health” (p = .197). In the gender factor, boys perceive themselves as having greater physical condition and capacity than girls in terms of physical activity and sports (p < .001) and better performance when compared with boys of the same age and same sex (p < .001). PE students perceive themselves as having better attitudes and more competence than SE students, at the same time that they have more fun and enjoy themselves and would be more willing to practice more physical activity and sport. In terms of gender, boys perceive themselves as better than girls and enjoy and have more fun than girls.

Risk of behavioural and developmental difficulties in early childhood in the Australian Capital Territory.

We aimed to estimate the prevalence of risk for developmental and behavioural problems for children in their first year of full-time primary education in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). We conducted an analysis of the 2014-2017 Kindergarten Health Check (KHC), an annual series of complete enumeration surveys of all children in their first year of full-time primary education in the ACT. Risk for developmental and behavioural problems was determined using the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS) questionnaire. 19 414 children (mean age 5.56 years; 51.4% boys; 2.3% Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander; 18.4% quintile of greatest relative disadvantage) who participated in the 2014-2017 KHC were included in the study (87%). More than half of ACT children in their first year of primary education had low/no developmental risk identified through the PEDS questionnaire, with 1 in 10 at high risk. Those more likely to have a high risk PEDS score were boys, those from the areas experiencing relative disadvantage, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children. While we can identify children at risk through screening, the greater challenge remains to identify and address the underlying causes of healthy inequalities, even within highly socioeconomically advantaged communities.

A future classroom lab with active and gamified STEAM proposal for mathematics and science disciplines: Analyzing the effects on pre-service teacher’s affective domain

The recent emergence of innovative learning spaces, Future Classroom Lab (FCL), provides educators the use of physical learning spaces (to research, interact, exchange, develop, create, and present) and diverse technological tools to work according to active methodologies. Learners become more active in the learning process with the introduction of innovative learning environments that enable the application of interdisciplinary STEAM methodology and foster the development of 21st century competences. This study aims to uncover the probable link between application active and gamified STEAM educational interventions in the FCL and Pre-Service Teachers’ (PSTs) affective domain. The findings obtained showed statistically significant variations and, therefore, positive effects on the PSTs’ affective domain (self-efficacy, attitude, and emotion) after performing the intervention. The sample consisted of a total of 54 PSTs enrolled in the second year of Primary Education. Limited studies regarding the affective domain in the FCL were found, which restricted the comparison with prior research. This study has several implications, such as the introduction of innovative educational proposals to PSTs at the university level and, consequently, the implementation of similar interventions in elementary schools. This research intended to reveal how the different variables work as a support system for students’ learning process in mathematics and science disciplines.

Development of a Mathematical Experience from a STEM and Sustainable Development Approach for Primary Education Pre-Service Teachers

Advances in education are increasingly important, and it is necessary to look for methodological strategies that enhance the value of mathematics in society and promote integrated training that helps students reason critically and rigorously. In this sense, math trails with a focus on STEM and sustainable development are a good resource to connect mathematics with the environment in a transversal way with other disciplines. A total of 35 postgraduate students in secondary education and 30 undergraduate students in primary education participated in this research and received a training course from experts in mathematics teaching. During the experience, the graduate students designed trails that were tested by the undergraduate students after a prior review by three in-service primary teachers. Likert scale questionnaires and open questions were asked of the students to evaluate the training received and the execution of the experience. Likewise, it was also decided to hold a debate with the participants and a guided interview with in-service teachers to assess the possible application of the resource in primary education courses. The results show a very positive assessment of the experience and allow us to support this approach to promote a change in the teaching–learning of mathematics in the last years of primary education.

The longitudinal relationship between internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems with academic achievement in elementary school

BackgroundCascade models propose that behavioral difficulties and academic achievement are reciprocally intertwined. However, empirical evidence for this assumption is inconclusive. AimsThe present study examines the relations between internalizing and externalizing behavioral difficulties and academic achievement in three achievement domains (i.e., reading, writing, mathematics) across four school years in primary school. SampleA sample of N = 461 primary school students was used to examine our research questions. Five waves of measurement were gathered to capture students’ educational development throughout elementary school. MethodsA series of cross-lagged panel analyses was conducted controlling for potential confounders (i.e., attention, cognitive ability, gender). ResultsContrary to our hypotheses, results point only to sporadic reciprocal effects between behavioral problems and achievement. Effects vary greatly both between achievement domain and between behavioral difficulties. On all longitudinal variable associations, there were consistently moderate to high stabilities across four years of primary education. ConclusionsModerate to high stabilities of the variables under examination suggests that interventions beginning after school entrance might be too late to avoid adverse developmental trajectories adequately. Additionally, prevention and intervention programs are discussed which might avoid such educational developments.

SUBJECTIVE ECONOMIC WELL-BEING OF BANK EMOK CUSTOMERS' FAMILIES: AN ANALYSIS OF DEBT BEHAVIOR, LIFESTYLE, ECONOMIC PRESSURE, AND FAMILY FINANCES

The utilization of money is not optimal, making the family's financial condition inefficient, which is why the family decides to get into debt at the Bank Emok. This study aims to analyze the influence of the family's debt behavior, lifestyle, economic pressure, and financial conditions (literacy and management) on the subjective economic well-being of Bank Emok customers in Bogor City. The research used a cross-sectional study design involving 150 families of Bank Emok customers selected by simple random sampling. The research instrument has adequate reliability and validity. The results of the analysis show that there are Bank Emok customers who are not categorized as poor. Many client families do not fulfill 12 years of primary education. Loans range from 2-16 million, with an average weekly installment of 138 thousand. As many as 26,7 percent of families fall into the category of high economic pressure, which is characterized by the difficulty of families in fulfilling food, education, and life skills. The results of the regression test show that the subjective economic welfare of families is positively influenced by lifestyle, financial literacy, financial management, number of dependents, length of wife's education, and length of loan. The analyzed model contributed 27,2 percent to the subjective economic well-being of families. Families are advised to start making financial plans and implement saving habits to be used in emergencies to improve the subjective economic well-being of the family.

Assessment of Levels of Bi-Literacy Among Bilingual Learners at The Middle-Basic Education: The Case of Abia and Nassarawa States of Nigeria

Going by the language provisions of the National Policy on Education (NPE), every Nigerian child in school is bilingual. Bilingual in the sense that the NPE provides for mother tongue (MT) or Language of the immediate environment/community (LIE/LIC) medium of instruction at the first three years of primary education otherwise called the Early Basic and transition into the English medium from primary 4 (The Middle Basic). The implication is that at the early basic, both the MT or the LIE/LIC as a subject and the other content subjects would be taught in the prescribed medium of MT/LIE while English studies would be taught in English medium and conversely at the Middle Basic where English is the medium except for MT/LE as a subject. Some of the basic skills targeted at the primary education level are functional literacy and numeracy skills. Literacy, simply is defined as the ability to read and write in a given language. The purpose of this study is to ascertain whether the bilingual pupils in Abia and Nasarawa states of Nigeria are also achieved bi-literacy, (that is acquire literacy skill in both the Ìgbò/English and Hausa/English) respectively. It also sought to compare the learners’ level of literacy between Ìgbò and English and Hausa and English respectively, between male and female bilinguals and between Abia and Nasarawa bilinguals. Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study was purposively the grade 5 Middle Basic while sample of 302 pupils (121 from Abia and 181 from Nasarawa states) were randomly selected from 5 primary schools proportionately selected in Aba North LGA of Abia State and Akwanga LGA of Nasarawa state respectively. Data was collected through researchers- constructed tests titled, Bi-literacy Reading and Writing Test (BRWT) comprising simple comprehension passages in English and its equivalents in Ìgbò and Hausa languages as well as translation exercises from English sentences into Ìgbò and Hausa respectively. The instrument had face and content validity. Data was analyzed using Mean and Standard Deviation for the research questions. Hypotheses1was tested with paired t-test while hypotheses 2 and 3 were tested using MANOVA. Findings include: both the bilingual Basic 5 pupils in Abia and Nasarawa states are bi-literate in their MT and English. There is a significant statistical difference in the biliteracy levels of bilingual Basic 5 pupils in Igbo/English and Hausa/English respectively. Hence, Abia bilinguals are more literate in English than in Igbo while the Nasarawa bilinguals are more literate in Hausa than in the English language. There is no significant statistical biliteracy difference between male and female Abia and Nasarawa bilingual Basic 5 pupils, the difference in their Mean scores is negligible. Finaly, there is a statistically significant biliteracy difference between the Abia Basic 5 bilinguals and their Nasarawa counterparts with the Abia bilinguals found more biliterate than the Nasarawa bilingual Basic 5 pupils. While Abia is recommended to get more intentional with MT/LIC medium at the basic levels of education, Nasarawa state is recommended to teach English in English and not in Hausa medium.

Teaching critical reading in the classroom: A comparison of CLIL and EFL across contexts

Critical reading (Fairclough, 1989, 1995; Kress, 1985; Wallace, 2003) is considered to be one of the instruments that gives the necessary resources to construct meaning in discourse. This paper presents the results of a quasi-experimental study with a pre-test post-test design on students in the 6th year of primary education (10-11 years old) enrolled in two schools in Spain, one school located in the Basque Country (Content and Language Integrated, CLIL group) and the other in Cantabria (English as a Foreign Language, EFL group). Altogether four groups were selected: CLIL-experimental, CLIL-control, EFL-experimental and EFL-control. The experimental groups received critical reading strategy instruction for seven weeks while the control groups continued with regular classes. The one-way ANCOVA results showed that students in both the CLIL and EFL programmes developed greater mastery in critical reading after the teaching protocol. However, and contrary to our initial hypothesis, experimental students from the EFL context outperformed the CLIL learners. The novelty of the critical reading awareness protocol seemed to have a greater influence on the EFL students, who, unlike the CLIL students, were not so familiar with strategy learning. The new training procedure helped them to promote higher order critical reading skills, taking more advantage of the whole strategy learning protocol.
 

Analysis of Ultimate Frisbee in Primary Education through the Sports Education Model

Physical Education (PE) teachers can positively influence students' overall development through their teaching activities, achieving a more physically active youth society that adopts healthy lifestyle habits and has a more supportive attitude towards their peers, teachers and families. This study aims to develop a didactic proposal in PE for Ultimate Frisbee through the Sports Education Model (SEM). The intervention is designed for 80 students in the 5th year of Primary Education, aged 10 and 11 years, who belong to four schools in Cáceres. For this purpose, a learning situation has been designed comprising a total of 9 classes, which will be carried out by the timetable of the SEM. In addition, given the characteristics of the pedagogical model, students will be given sufficient autonomy to be the protagonists of their learning. With this didactic proposal, it is expected that students will increase their motivation levels, participate actively during PE classes, become involved both behaviourally and emotionally and improve their perception of the subject and the practice of physical activity (PA) in their free time.

Informal speech in primary school children in their leisure time: the influence of Spanish or French on their spontaneous expressivity

This study was funded by the Mintzola Project of the Royal Academy of the Basque Language (Euskaltzaindia), by the Basque School Association (Ikastolen Elkartea) and by Mondragon Unibertsitatea. Our purpose was to examine whether speech among friends ina formal setting can have a positive effect on increasing informal speech in Basque among students. We present the first steps of this research here. Ten schools (ikastolas) from different territories in the Basque Country were selected, and the language habits of students in their fourth year of Primary Education at home, outside the home and at school were initially examined via a questionnaire in order to obtain baseline information about the sample in as much detail as possible. We then observed the participating children in the recreational areas of the schools in order to determine which language(s) they speak with their friends during their free time.

Eating Habits and School Performance in Students of Primary Education

Background: Maintaining a proper diet is crucial, particularly for children undergoing the critical phases of growth and development. Objective: This study aims to investigate the association between eating habits and academic performance among students in Primary Education. Methods: The research adopts a descriptive-correlational approach with a cross-sectional design, utilizing a sample comprising 427 students (242 boys and 185 girls) in the sixth year of Primary Education. The instrument used is a self-developed ad hoc questionnaire, encompassing dietary habits, food choices at school and home throughout a typical week (including breakfast, lunch, snack, and dinner), and academic performance assessed by the student’s tutor. Results: Significant associations were observed between academic performance and the consumption of pasta, fruit, and meat (P=0.00), as well as pastries and fish (P<0.05). Students with a preference for these foods tend to exhibit higher academic performance. However, no significant correlations were identified for “vegetables”, and there were no discernible associations between food groups and academic performance based on gender or body mass index (BMI). Conclusion: Individuals displaying proper eating habits, such as consuming five daily meals, avoiding food wastage, and incorporating pasta, fruit, and meat into their diet, demonstrate commendable academic performance.

Computational Thinking with Scratch: A Tool to Work on Geometry in the Fifth Grade of Primary Education

To achieve the Fourth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of providing quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all 21st-century students, today it is essential to develop Computational Thinking skills. This article analyses the results obtained in an empirical experience in which Computational Thinking is used with Scratch educational software to address Geometry content in Primary Education. In many cases, this content is repetitive and has little practical application; therefore, using this resource as a learning tool allows us to propose a more dynamic, motivating, and effective approach for students. The experiment was carried out with a total of 66 students in the fifth year of Primary Education from 3 different schools using a non-equivalent control group design with substitute pre-test measures. In order to be able to carry out this work, the teachers involved first received initial training. Subsequently, the students carried out generic activities to familiarise themselves with the educational software and, finally, specific geometry activities. The results obtained show a more positive learning process among those students who worked with Scratch, highlighting the motivating and evidently practical aspect of this resource. These results serve to promote an approach to the teaching of Geometry in elementary education that goes beyond traditional boundaries, embracing student centricity and Computational Thinking as cornerstones. Additionally, the emphasis on Computational Thinking becomes a clarion call for educators to embrace innovative pedagogies that resonate with the evolving needs of 21st-century learners, and it should be considered an important element with a significant role in the Mathematics curriculum framework.

Teaching English as a Second Language in the Early Years: Teachers’ Perspectives and Practices in Finland

Second language (L2) education in the early years has been steadily increasing worldwide. Since second language education at earlier ages is relatively new in many countries, not much research is available regarding teaching practices in this context. Likewise, limited research attention has been directed to teachers’ perspectives on early L2 teaching. This study investigated what characterises teachers’ pedagogical planning, teaching practices and assessment of language learning, and teachers’ perspectives about the opportunities and challenges in early L2 classrooms within the cultural context of the Finnish education system. The data for this study were gathered through an online survey involving teachers of English (n = 49) as a second language in the early years of primary education in Finland. The results show that the teachers based their pedagogical planning on the curriculum, used a variety of L2 tasks and materials, which they often prepared by themselves, and they mostly used observation, instead of formal exams, for assessing the children’s learning in L2. The results revealed that the teachers’ perspectives to the early start for L2 teaching were positive, which stemmed from the children’s enthusiasm for language learning. The teachers draw attention to challenges such as big group sizes, the diversity in children’s skills (e.g., their prior L2 knowledge, social skills, learning capabilities), and the limited availability of teaching materials targeted for young learner groups in L2 education. The findings demonstrate the opportunities and challenges L2 teachers of early learners face in Finland.

Ecotoxicology At School: A Proposal For Insertion Into Practical Science Classes

The complexity of environmental effects, caused by the diversity of chemical compounds interacting with the biota, brings to light the urgency of an emancipating education focused on integral human formation. In this sense, there is a concern about appropriately working with themes relevant to environmental education for students in the early years of primary education. Thus, educators in the field of biological sciences are allowed to approach topics related to biodiversity, to educate for citizenship, in the perspective that students recognize themselves as part of the environment. Problem-Based Learning - PBL involves questioning based on the observation of phenomena, hypothesis testing, and analysis of results, being an ally of science, considering that the student is the protagonist in the different stages of knowledge construction. Based on this methodology, auxiliary materials were prepared for use in the classroom, guided by concepts and playfulness. To contextualize the phenomena involved in the study of ecotoxicology, a survey was carried out of the contents and abilities of the Brazilian National Common Core Curriculum (BNCC, as per the acronym in Portuguese), listing the potentials to be examined together with the concepts of ecotoxicology. For these, bioassay protocols were chosen for the elaboration of practical activities that exemplify the thought phenomenon. Two skills were selected for the elaboration of stories that describe problematization, the accomplishment of the experimental activity, and the presentation of the results of the experiments throughout the character’s daily life. The area’s theoretical and practical framework involves using technical terms, which can compromise students’ interest and learning. To remedy the difficulty with the concepts, a mini dictionary was created with definitions and optimization of technical terms to simplify the research process and the student’s understanding.

Basque Adaptation of the Reduced Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS-R)

ObjectivesMindfulness consists of paying attention to the present moment with curiosity, acceptance and non-judgment. Although several instruments exist for evaluating mindfulness in adults, few have been adapted for children, and even fewer have been adapted to the Basque language. The aim of the present study is to adapt the Reduced Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS-R) questionnaire for use with Basque-speaking children.MethodA total of 479 children from the last 2 years of primary education (Years 5 and 6), aged between 9 and 12 years, participated in this study. The sample was divided into two subgroups: exploratory subsample (n = 237) and confirmatory subsample (n = 242). In addition to the KIMS-R, we also administered other questionnaires to measure mindfulness, perceived stress, emotional skills, neuroticism and depression.ResultsThe analysis showed that the adapted questionnaire was reliable, with scores measuring consistency and stability in acceptable ranges. The analysis revealed a 5-factor structure (Internal observation, External observation, Description, Acting with awareness and Acceptance without judgment). These dimensions showed acceptable internal consistency (α between 0.69 and 0.83; ω between 0.69 and 0.83) and temporal stability (r = 0.54, 0.64, 0.79, 0.40, 0.59). The instrument was also found to have adequate external validity, with associations being observed between mindfulness and emotional abilities, perceived stress, neuroticism and depression.ConclusionsThe Basque version of the KIMS-R will enable scholars to assess the ability of children in the Basque Autonomous Community to be mindful. It will also be useful for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions designed to promote mindfulness skills. This adaptation of the KIMS-R instrument can be considered a step forward in the field of mindfulness research.PreregistrationThis study is not preregistered.

Health behaviour and cardiovascular risk in women living in a disadvantaged region in Hungary

Abstract Background The risk factors for non-communicable diseases more prevalent among socioeconomically disadvantaged (SED) adults. The aim of our study was to investigate monitored health status and health behaviour, including risk factors for cardiovascular disease, among women living in disadvantaged regions of Hungary. Methods In the monitored study, nutritional status was measured by a medical body composition analyser and vascular status by the arterial stiffness parameter (PWVao) measured by arteriograph (ARG), supplemented by a health questionnaire. Descriptive statistical analyses were performed to analyse the database, within a 95% confidence interval (CI). Pearson's χ2 test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to test assumptions. The source population of the study was women living in the Abaúj region, the most disadvantaged regions of Hungary. A total of 150 SED adult women constituted the target population. Results The average age of the study participants was 52.8 (SD:15.9) years. More than half of the participants had at completed 8 years of primary education or less (52.3%; 95% CI: 44-61). They were overweight in terms of Body Mass Index (mean BMI=28.7 SD:6.6), and mean systolic blood pressure was 139 mmHg (SD:21.43). The mean PWVao measured in the population was 10.51m/s (SD:6.9). Elevated BMI was significantly (ANOVA p < 0.011) associated with higher PWVao. 36.2% (95% CI: 48-64) of the target group smoked daily. More than half of smokers (55%; 95%CI:38-76) smoked 11-20 cigarettes per day. Smokers scored an average of 4.82 (SD = 2.3) on the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) scale of moderate dependence. Lower educational attainment status (χ2 p < 0.001) significantly increase the proportion of smokers in the sample. Conclusions Obesity, smoking and elevated PWVao, are associated with higher circulatory and vascular risk and higher atherosclerotic organ damage, which may contribute to higher premature mortality among disadvantaged women. Key messages • Examining the association between heath behaviour and cardivascular risk of socioeconomically disadvantaged individuals can enhance the development of interventions to decrease health inequalities. • Targeted community health promotion for disadvantaged women is a priority, because their health behaviour determines the health of their children and families.

Music as a Tool in Learning: Improvements in Basic Competences in Children Studying an Integrated Music Programme

Son Serra (Son Serra State Primary School), in Mallorca, is the first state-run school in the Balearic Islands to offer integrated music and non-integrated pathways to students in the same class. This study aims to compare the results of students from the fourth year of primary education from both pathways in a maths, Spanish, Catalan and English language level tests. Socioeconomic information on the children's families was also gathered. The results showed students from the integrated music group always outperforming their peers from the non-integrated group in the four assessed competences. Having established that the families’ socioeconomic status does not condition these results, the benefits of receiving more music practice were discussed.

Effects of a homework implementation method (MITCA) on school engagement

MITCA (homework implementation method) was born with the purpose of turning homework into an educational resource capable of improving the self-regulation of learning and the school engagement of students. In this article, following the current theoretical framework, we evaluate the impact of the MITCA method on school engagement in students in the 5th and 6th years of Primary Education. While the control group of students who did not participate in the 12 weeks of MITCA (N = 431; 61% of 5th grade) worsened significantly in emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement, these pre-post differences do not reach significance for the group that has participated in MITCA, even observing a tendency to improve. After the intervention, the students who participated in MITCA (N = 533; 50.6% of 5th grade) reported greater emotional and behavioral engagement than the students in the control group. MITCA students showed positive emotions, were happier in school and were more interested in the classroom, paid more attention in class, and were more attentive to school rules. The conditions of the tasks’ prescription proposed by MITCA would not only restrain the lack of engagement but would also improve students’ emotional and behavioral engagement in school found in the last years of Primary Education. In the light of the results, a series of educational strategies related to the characteristics of these tasks, such as the frequency of prescription and the type of correction are proposed.