XVI XVII Research Articles

Піснеспіви свята Преображення у східнослов’янських співочих рукописах єрусалимського уставу

У статті розглянуто та досліджено 6 богослужбових (Устави та Мінеї) та 76 співочих східнослов’янських кодексів єрусалимської традиції, що припадає на кінець XIV – першу половину XVII століття. Це Стихирарі, Осмогласники, Збірники, Ірмологіони, в яких віднайдено піснеспіви свята Преображення. В співочих рукописах вказаного часу представлені майже всі піснеспіви чину свята, які зафіксовані безпозначковою крюковою, путьовою та київською нотолінійною нотацією. В рукописах межі XVI–XVII століть, періоду найвищого розквіту давньоруського співочого мистецтва, послідовність служби свята Преображення завершує своє формування та з’являються різноманітні співочі інтерпретації поетичного тексту (багаторозспівність).

The Interpretation Center “Hillfort Odoevskoe”

Introduction. The article is devoted to the study of the possibility of recreating the architectural and artistic image of the historical landscape, which has the status of an archaeological monument of the XVII century and includes a wooden fortress of the XVI–XVII centuries. In the recreated fortress, it is planned to organize an interpretive center “Hillfort Odoevskoe”.
 Materials and methods. The research consisted of the field surveys, the study of historical, historical-architectural, local literary sources, documents, and identification of quantitative parameters necessary for the reconstruction of the fortress, as well as the use of these data in the conceptual architectural design. There is a lack of sources on the research subject. The discovered records mention the hillfort only in the context of general and local history. The research was carried out at the level of archaeological exploration; no iconographic materials were found.
 Results. The study has found the possibility of a reconstruction of Odoev wooden fortress and proposed the concept of the architectural organization of the interpretation center “Odoevskoe settlement”. The research emphasized the importance of this recreation to increase the expressiveness of the urban composition, enrichment, and development of the functional structure of Odoev town. Odoevskaya fortress was a part of the Tula or Big zasechnaya line. Its creation in the XVI century and reconstruction in the XVII century were significant for the development of the state strategic measures . The passport of the hillfort monument states that it is of interest to reconstruct of the general system of fortifications of the XVII century. Odoevskaya fortress is a rare example of preserved natural and historical relief, the territory of which is free from buildings. The paper presents the rough plan and general characteristics of the hillfort reconstruction project. It also considered the proposals on the possibility of using structures with the allocation of several functional zones.
 Conclusions. The study positively estimates the possibility of recreating the architectural and artistic image of the historical landscape, including the fortress of the XVI–XVII centuries and using the territory and constructions to organize the interpretation center.

COLOR PALETTE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

In linguistics, the attention of linguists constantly attracts the question of the history of the formation and development of individual thematic groups at different stages of the language, in particular, the interest of researchers to the history of color names has increased considerably. In general, the diachronic study of color names, in particular the Middle Ukrainian period, is important for the formation process, the functioning of the subject group under consideration, and the identification of the regularities of the formation of the historical lexicology of the Ukrainian language in general. This led to the choice of the topic of the article and its relevance. The purpose of the article is to determine the specificity of the existence of Ukrainian nomens for the designation of the colors of the Middle Ukrainian period. The object of the study is the lexical-semantic group of color names. The subject is the functioning of this thematic group, revealing the patterns of registration of groups and microgroups of color names. Methods of research are predetermined by the purpose and tasks put in the article. The main ones are descriptive with its universal methods of observing, systematizing and interpreting linguistic facts and phenomena, studying the structure of semantic color filling, and the method of statistical calculations. Divergent materials point to the specifics, the national originality of the Ukrainian language, and substantiate the tendencies of the evolutionary formation of the lexical-semantic group of color names, testifying to its steady development. The sources of the occurrence of color titles are polysemy (the use of objects, objects of nature with a certain color to create new color names); lexical-morphological means (complex words, special words for the transmission of shades); loan. The proof of high valence of color renders is white, black, red is a series of derivatives, complex derivatives, synonymous rows. The name of the mixed colors is evidenced by diffuse phenomena in the language. Quantitative indicators are drawn to attention: the names of black, white, and yellow are mainly represented in one color, while blue, and especially red, is low. The Proto-Slavic heritage is the main names of animals, some borrowed from the Turkic languages. Originally, some tokens reach the Indo-European period (white, black, red), others are formed on the grounds of the Proto-Slavic, Old Ukrainian languages (blue, gray, green), the middle-Ukrainian period, or borrowed at different times from other languages. The linguistic tradition of the XIV–XVIII centuries. testifies to the active use of color names known in the XI–XIII centuries, which is an indicator of the high degree of preservation of the Common Slavic lexical layer in the analyzed group. In the XVI–XVII centuries. the number of colourolexes increases significantly due to new nominations, derivatives and borrowings. By the end of the XVII century finally formed a lexical-semantic group of color attributes. Diachronic analysis of semantics of color names reveals trends in its development, creates a ground for further in-depth study of lexical-semantic groups of color names.

ЗАПОЗИЧЕННЯ ЯК ДЕТЕРМІНАНТА ДИНАМІКИ ЛЕКСИКОНУ УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ МОВИ XVI–XVII СТ.

The language situation in Ukraine in the XVI–XVII centuries by V. Nimchuk definition, was «the most complicated in Europe (if not worldwide)», because the languages «manifested the competition of different ideologies and political-economic systems. Languages were opposing worlds and harbingers of a new world view birth, or the concept of the world» (I. Farion). In the researched period in Ukraine different languages were developed and used: Ukrainian, Church Slavonic, Greek, Latin, Hebraic, Yiddish, Armenian, Turkish, Kipchak-Tatar, Polish, German, Hungarian, Italian, French and others. The result of the language interaction became the lexical borrowings, the amount of which was increased in the XVI–XVII centuries, that was caused by both intralingual and external reasons. It is important to outline the types of changes of the dynamics of Ukrainian lexicon of study period to determine the influence mechanisms of borrowings on the structure of the language-recipient.The purpose. Article is dedicated to explanation of extralingual factors of development of lexicon Ukrainian language of XVI–XVII ct., role of borrowings in this process and their coexistence with native lexic. Changes of lexic of thematical groups of names of persons by their job of kind of business, which were in XVI–XVII ct., are analized. This lexic reflects state of development of craft and industry in Ukraine in period, which being invesigated, and witnesses level of economical, legal, political and cultural development, presence of own and adopted crafts.Research methods. General scientific methods (induction, deduction, analysys, synthesis), special linguistic methods (descriptional, linguo-cultural, systematic-classicifical) and quantity calculation approach are used in this work.Main results of study. Ukrainian literal sources of XVI–XVII ct. prove borrowings from Latin, Greek, Church-Slavic, Polish, German, Italian, French, Hungarian, Romanian, Lituanian, Dutch, Russian, Belorussian, Chekh, Arabian and Turkish languages. These lexems got into Ukrainian language either direct or with mediatory of other languages, most Polish or Chekh, wich was caused by complex lingual or extralingual factors.Scientific novelty of research results. Adoptions as an element of development of Ukrainian lexicon of XVI–XVII ct. made different impact to the development of particular TGL and LSG, which was caused by chain of lingual and extralingual factors and caused multidimention of TGL and non-uniform dencity of outer lexic inside them. Saturation of particular ideographic spheres by borrowings depended on many reasons, in particular, from state of development of corresponding TGL and LSG, actuality of shpere of nomination by itself, existence (and their quantity) of native semantic dublets. Linguists-historicians has different quantity of using of words, remote by time, which allows us to extract particular meanings or their shades from their basement. A linguist is bound to outgoing material, which does not allow him to reach completeness of modelling of lexicon dynamic. Conclusions and specific suggestions of the autor. It’s notices, that using of achievemnts of dialectology, archeology, ethnography, history, folkloristics will allow to contribute significant amends into understanding of specifics of development of Ukrainian language in XVI–XVII ct. Investigation of Ukrainian language realm in diachrony through the prism of literal sources forces an activisation of new lexicographic studies. Creation of array of texts is an important step in modern Ukrainian lexicographic studies, because it supports complex investigation of language material, it’s availability to specialists in different spheres of knowledge

Певчие главных хоров Российского государства XVI—XVII вв. как служилые люди государева и патриаршего дворов

В Москве XVI—XVII вв. существовало два мощных, тесно связанных между собой центра профессионально-музыкального искусства, объединявших лучшие творческие силы страны, — хор при Государевом дворе и хор при дворе Митрополита (с 1589 г. — Патриарха) Москов- ского и всея Руси. Эти центры аккумулировали традиции «московского пения», сами являясь активными творцами этих традиций. По мнению автора, вся совокупность рассмотренных данных (деятельность, принципы комплектования, виды жалования и система окладов, право- вое положение), свидетельствуют, что государевы и патриаршие певчие входили в категорию придворных служилых людей. Выбывая из хоров, они часто поступали (переводились) на такие должности или чины в государственном аппарате, как думные и приказные дьяки, подьячие, дети боярские и т. д. Полученные данные позволяют уточнить социальный статус мастеров, которых нередко исследователи относят к категории духовенства.

«Приказное» правосудие: вопросы осуждения ратных людей (XVI–XVII вв.)

«Приказное» правосудие: вопросы осуждения ратных людей (XVI–XVII вв.)

FORMATION OF EARLY ABSOLUTISM AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE STATE DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRIA IN XVIII CENT

The article deals with the historical and legal aspects of the formation of early absolutism and its influence on the development of Austria in the eighteenth century. It is specified, that in XVI–XVII centuries in Europe a process of transformation of the medieval state of monarchy into absolute monarchy took place. Political absolutism was a control system, in which the whole state power (legislative, executive, judicial), and partly even a spiritual (religious), was concentrated in the hands of the monarch. The regime of absolute monarchy possessed control over all spheres of public life (the monarch independently set taxes and was in charge of public finance, determined the direction of foreign policy. The Church, the regional elites (aristocracy) and the bureaucracy, which is actively growing, were the factors that to a certain extent limited the power of the monarch. It is argued that absolutism in Habsburg monarchy was formed in the mid-seventeenth century as emergency of state management. Austrian absolutism, considering the geographical location of the state, was formed as a combination of Western influences and Eastern traditions. It is shown that the element of early Austrian absolutism was the so-called «discipline of society». In the last third of the twentieth century in the scientific discourse the concept of the German researcher Gerhard Oistrakh of «social discipline» became widespread. Periodic dissatisfaction of the Czech State and Hungary were characteristic features of the development of the Austrian Empire. Under these circumstances there was an objective need both in the disciplinary intervention of the state in various spheres of human activity, and in the conscious and disciplined behavior of individuals. Consequently, the disciplined behavior of an official and officer, peasant and artisan, became a creative force that allowed not only systematically to organize the life of society, but as well to reform it creatively. These internal changes later formed the basis for educational reform within the framework of enlightened absolutism. The article deals with the historical and legal aspects of the formation of early absolutism and its influence on the development of Austria in the eighteenth century. It is specified, that in XVI–XVII centuries in Europe a process of transformation of the medieval state of monarchy into absolute monarchy took place. Political absolutism was a control system, in which the whole state power (legislative, executive, judicial), and partly even a spiritual (religious), was concentrated in the hands of the monarch. The regime of absolute monarchy possessed control over all spheres of public life (the monarch independently set taxes and was in charge of public finance, determined the direction of foreign policy. The Church, the regional elites (aristocracy) and the bureaucracy, which is actively growing, were the factors that to a certain extent limited the power of the monarch. It is argued that absolutism in Habsburg monarchy was formed in the mid-seventeenth century as emergency of state management. Austrian absolutism, considering the geographical location of the state, was formed as a combination of Western influences and Eastern traditions. It is shown that the element of early Austrian absolutism was the so-called «discipline of society». In the last third of the twentieth century in the scientific discourse the concept of the German researcher Gerhard Oistrakh of «social discipline» became widespread. Periodic dissatisfaction of the Czech State and Hungary were characteristic features of the development of the Austrian Empire. Under these circumstances there was an objective need both in the disciplinary intervention of the state in various spheres of human activity, and in the conscious and disciplined behavior of individuals. Consequently, the disciplined behavior of an official and officer, peasant and artisan, became a creative force that allowed not only systematically to organize the life of society, but as well to reform it creatively. These internal changes later formed the basis for educational reform within the framework of enlightened absolutism. It is substantiated that absolutism played a double role in the history of Austria: firstly, it served as the mechanism within which the reform of the state system took place; and secondly, it was a way to ethnic and political unification of the country. The absolute monarchy state in Europe reached the maximum degree of centralization, but in the case of Austria, it had its own peculiarities. The multinationality and heterogeneity of its provinces were the hindrance to complete centralization and unification of the local government. Therefore, such a concentration of power, as took place in Prussia, was not observed in Austria. And only the weakening of the Czech State after the Thirty Years War and Hungary after the suppression of the uprising F. Rakoczi contributed to the rise of the Austrian State.

Traducciones bíblicas en lenguas indoamericanas. El Evangeliario náhuatl de la biblioteca capitular de Toledo (Mss 35-22)

Between the walls of the Chapter Library of Toledo, a valuable miscellaneous manuscript is preserved among other priceless pieces, such as Friar Bernardino de Sahagún's Manual del Christiano, one of the first Epistles and Gospels translations into the Nahuatl Language. The Mesoamerican language evangeliaries, barely studied, were of fundamental importance for the process of evangelisation of New Spain, even though they were prohibited by the Council of Trent (1545 - 1563). This article presents the hitherto unknown manuscript 35-22 from Toledo Chapter's Library, which will be edited and translated in the current Project, « Mesoamerican Biblical Philology (c. XVI‒XVII) ».

Основні віхи вивчення та картографування р. Дніпро, Подніпров’я європейськими вченими і картографами (кінець XVI–XVII ст.) на прикладі фондів сектору картографічних видань НБУВ

Основні віхи вивчення та картографування р. Дніпро, Подніпров’я європейськими вченими і картографами (кінець XVI–XVII ст.) на прикладі фондів сектору картографічних видань НБУВ

China’s Financial Regulations: Are Other WTO Members’ Concerns Realistic or Overcritical?

Since China’s WTO accession it has been involved in four WTO disputes relating to financial services as the respondent, while other WTO Members remain concerned that China continues to limit access to foreign financial services and service suppliers. As other WTO Members’ concerns could be either realistic or overcritical, this paper aims to explore whether there are any further inconsistencies in China’s GATS obligations and financial regualtions. After reviewing all WTO Members’ concerns on China’s financial services, this paper examines the consistency of four frequently and constantly raised issues with the GATS agreement and China’s WTO obligations. As a result, this paper finds that two regulations are inconsistent with Article XVI and Article XVII of the GATS: the 20 per cent cap on shareholding in a Chinese-funded bank by a single foreign financial institution, and the 1 million RMB minimum for foreign banks’ local currency business. Further, China still has not complied with its transparency obligations under the Accession Protocol and Working Party Report. These findings are significant for the Chinese government as well as other WTO Members who already have or want to have close trade relations with China in financial services.

Inter/Nationalism: Decolonizing Native America and Palestine by Steven Salaita

Reviewed by: Inter/Nationalism: Decolonizing Native America and Palestine by Steven Salaita Heather Ashley Hayes Steven Salaita, Inter/Nationalism: Decolonizing Native America and Palestine Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016, 232 pp. The arc of Steven Salaita's words has not been without "controversy," especially in public discussion in the United States. In 2014, in the midst of being offered a significant position at the University of Illinois Champaign-Urbana and then having that offer revoked, the chancellor of the university stated that Salaita's tweets represented "disrespectful words … that demean and abuse either viewpoints themselves or those who express them." He was labeled anti-Semitic and the controversy pointed to what Salaita argued was a nefarious tenor in the academy: critiques of Israel would not just get you called names, they could get you fired. In 2016, the search that was set to renew Salaita's position at the American University of Beirut in Lebanon was abruptly cancelled and the position was functionally eliminated. He has yet to be reappointed, anywhere in the academy. It is into this set of conditions that his 2016 book, Inter/Nationalism: Decolonizing Native America and Palestine, was released. I consider it possible that as a [End Page 412] result, some reviews of this text take particular aim at Salaita himself, before the work. For example, Diana Muir, in the review of Inter/Nationalism published in Middle East Quarterly (summer 2017) argues that Salaita "allows his personal perspectives to get the better of him" and "veers into conspiracy theory and innuendo." As a result, I aim here to interrogate Salaita's mission in Inter/Nationalism, to parse its arguments and take its central claims seriously outside of the overwhelming exteriority that has attached itself to Salaita, the scholar. And he argues, in the introduction of the text, that the goal of the work is substantial. He aims to develop "a theory of inter/nationalism, an amalgamation of what is sometimes called solidarity, transnationalism, intersectionality, kinship, or intercommunalism" (ix). This mission is one that the book repeatedly returns to throughout its arguments and theoretical assertions. He also does serious inter- and trans-disciplinary work that attempts to blend academic and socio-political boundaries in acknowledging "inter/nationalism demands commitment to mutual liberation based on the proposition that colonial power must be rendered diffuse across multiple hemispheres through reciprocal struggle." This assertion alone marks this work as powerful, and in tandem with Frantz Fanon (who he draws from a great deal throughout), Salaita facilitates theoretical roads that make his work here mandatory reading for those interested in post-colonial perspective, historical analysis, critical interpretation, or cross-cultural study (which Salaita addresses directly). The nation state is a point of departure for Salaita here, and he goes to lengths to explain why. He argues that inter/nationalism is a term "to emphasize action and dialogue across borders, both natural and geopolitical—not the nationalism of the nation-state, but of the nation itself, as composed of heterogenous communities functioning as self-identified collectives attached to particular land bases" (xiv). His specificity on language, theoretically, gestures to why his work will be of interest in particular to readers of The Comparatist: "Whereas 'internationalism,' without the slash, connotes cosmopolitan modernity or an epistemology of worldly experience, 'inter/nationalism,' with its typographical emphasis on the complex and volatile term 'nationalism,' encourages the possibility of putting nationalisms into conversation or, more ambitiously, into collective practice" (xv–xvi). All the theory building that follows this setup is responsive, as he notes, to Fanon's understanding of decolonization (xii). The idea of putting American Indian studies in conversation with Palestine is also elucidated in the introduction of Salaita's work. This is one of the features of the text that will be most valuable and controversial to those approaching the book for its "cross-cultural" efforts. As he argues, "[the nation] retains profound value to Natives and Palestinians as a subject of cultural practice, not merely as a geopolitical, historical, or discursive entity" (xvi–xvii). From here Salaita moves into [End Page 413] his first chapter, which presents his case for why Palestine should be important to those in American Indian studies. It...

Przyczynek do dziejów bieckiego cechu tkackiego. Spór między Marcinem Foltynowicem a cechem płócienniczym

Guild of Weavers was an associations of people who worked in many different places and did a lot for their guild and town. Guild of Weavers was very popular in XVI–XVII centuries in Poland. Guild was composed of masters and students. They have a lot of prerogatives from king and town. This article shows lawsuit between masters in guild of Weavers and one of their member named Marcin Foltynowic in XVII century in Biecz. The author of article presented long way of this litigation, include every part of procedures in court in Biecz. To conclude this article shows hierarchy in guild of Weavers, their members and shows power of guild as an organization of people with the same profession.

Судебно-юрисдикционная политика российской верховной власти в отношении коренных народов областей Поволжья и Урала в XVI–XVII вв.

Судебно-юрисдикционная политика российской верховной власти в отношении коренных народов областей Поволжья и Урала в XVI–XVII вв.

Суфийский орден Халватийа в горной Аварии: новые страницы истории суфизма в средневековом Дагестане (XVI–XVII вв.)

Суфийский орден Халватийа в горной Аварии: новые страницы истории суфизма в средневековом Дагестане (XVI–XVII вв.)

The Russian-Chechen relations in XVI–XVII centuries

The following paper investigates the Russian-Chechen relations in XVIXVII centuries. The authors note that the Caucasus was in the sphere of Russian foreign policy at the time of the Russian centralized state formation. With the annexation of the Astrakhan khanate, Russia came to the Caucasus border and the Caucasian direction started to occupy a leading place in the Eastern policy of the tsarist government. The Caucasus in the XVI century was an object of a tense struggle between the two most powerful States of the then Middle East Ottoman Empire and Safavid Iran and at the same time a bridgehead, where there was a constant threat to the southern outskirts of Russia from these States and the Crimean khanate. The strengthening of Russia on the Caucasian lands could become the most reliable means to ensure the safety of the South of Russia. So in the XVII and XVII centuries, the North Caucasus was Russias military-strategic interest or, in modern language, a geopolitical one. Chechnya came under the influence of Russia in 1567, when the first Russian militarized city Terek in the North Caucasus was founded. For the peoples of the North Caucasus and of Chechnya the appearance of a Russian fortress on their land was of great political importance. Thus, it was vital for Russia to gain a foothold in the North Caucasus, as the enemy (Iran and Turkey) could do it, which was unsafe for Russias southern borders. It was during this period (late sixteenth century) when close military and political ties of the Moscow government and the Chechens were established. The Moscow government was interested in Chechnya because of its geographical location the immediate proximity to the towns of Terek and the fact that its territory was the most convenient means of communication with Georgia. The relationship between Chechnya and Russia at the end of XVI first half of XVII century was almost an ideal model of a peaceful rapprochement of the Chechen with the Moscow government for those conditions and at that time. The Russian authorities did not interfere in the internal affairs of the Chechen societies, they did not impose their own rules or laws, being satisfied with the results of the hostages, the payment of tribute and, if necessary, temporary military service. This led to the fact that in the XVII century allied relations of Chechnya societies with Russia were established. However, at the end of the XVII century Russian-Caucasian connection was significantly weakened.

Characterization of mortars from the medieval Abbey of Cerrate (southern Italy)

Mortars from the walls of S. Maria di Cerrate Abbey (South Italy) ranging in age from the 12th to the 20th century, were studied using a multidisciplinary approach designed to produce a guideline of investigation that can be applied to the knowledge and preservation of archaeological sites. The analyses highlighted the differences between medieval and post-medieval mortars; the former showed a dominantly carbonate aggregate, the latter a mostly siliciclastic aggregate. Among these, mortars dated from the XVI–XVII centuries display a mixed siliciclastic-carbonate binder whereas mortars from the XIX–XX centuries exhibit a predominantly carbonate binder with the Al-silicates mostly gathered as lumps.

Некоторые аспекты формирования антикоррупционной практики в Московском государстве (конец XVI–XVII вв.)

The article analyzes the specific conditions that influenced on the formation of the functioning features of judicial and administrative authorities of the Moscow State (the end of XVI - XVII centuries). The causes of tolerant public attitude towards corruption are discovered. The process of the state anti-corruption practice formation is examined.

Standing Firmly by the Flag: Nebraska Territory and the Civil War, 1861–1867 by James E. Potter

Reviewed by: Standing Firmly by the Flag: Nebraska Territory and the Civil War, 1861–1867 by James E. Potter Ronald C. Naugle and John J. Montag James E. Potter, Standing Firmly by the Flag: Nebraska Territory and the Civil War, 1861–1867. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. 375pp. $29.95. The adage that war is long periods of boredom punctuated by moments of sheer terror is borne out by the experience of the First Nebraska regiment of volunteers from 1861 to 1866 as related by James E. Potter in Standing Firmly by the Flag: Nebraska Territory and the Civil War, 1861–1867. In researching the story of the regiment and the 1,300 or so men who served in it, Potter realized the importance of the larger and more complex story of Nebraska Territory itself in the half dozen years before statehood in 1867 and that realization led to the structure of the book. Drawing primarily on the official records, newspaper accounts, letters, diaries, memoirs, and public papers he interweaves political and military events chronologically in an introduction, six chapters (each titled for individual years of the war), and an epilogue that chronicles the war and the events that followed. He seeks to overcome the limitations of earlier works–the uneven coverage of the military in general histories of the territory and the lack of broader context in specialized studies of military or economic activities such as freighting. In doing so Potters argues against “the notion that statehood in 1867 is really the genesis event from which Nebraska history has unfolded” (xvi–xvii). Kansas and Nebraska territories were created as part of the same congressional act in 1854, but the two territories were vastly different. Kansas remained close to its present size but Nebraska by comparison was initially geographically huge, being five times its present size. It incorporated everything between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains from Kansas to [End Page 101] the Canadian border and incorporated by what would become those parts of North and South Dakota lying west of the Missouri River, large sections of what would become Idaho, Montana and Wyoming and the northeastern portion of Colorado. Most of those areas had been carved away by 1861. The Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820 which had disallowed slavery in those areas west of Missouri and north of Missouri’s southern border in the Louisiana Purchase and replaced it with “popular sovereignty” allowing the people to decide the fate of slavery at the time the territory became a state. It meant technically slavery could exist in both Kansas and Nebraska territories until statehood. The two territories had different experiences with slavery. Kansas was besieged by political turmoil over the issue of slavery and the division between pro-slavery Missourians and Free Soilers fighting for control of the territory briefly led to the creation of two capitals, one anti-slavery at Lawrence and the other pro-slavery at Lecompton. The story was very different in Nebraska, at least in the territorial days. Few expected Nebraska to embrace slavery but some new residents brought slaves with them into Nebraska. The federal census in 1860 listed only fifteen slaves in Nebraska. Instead Nebraska’s divisive issue was the location of the territorial capital which dominated the political scene all the way into statehood. Indians made up most of Nebraska’s population in 1860, with white settlement concentrated near the Missouri River and a scattering of “soldiers, miners, and trail side entrepreneurs” to the west. Three quarters of the territories 28,841 non-Indian population were native-born, about 80% coming from the free states. Most of the immigrants came from German provinces, England or Ireland. With so much diversity it comes as no surprise that whatever might be inferred initially from the title, Standing Firmly by the Flag, the reader soon learns that Nebraskans in the Civil War era differed widely in their political views, ranging from secessionists or “secesh” as they were commonly called, to Unionists and from pro- to anti-emancipation. In just one example Potter relates the story of Robert D. Thompson, twenty-three-year-old son of First Nebraska company commander J...

Three New Perspectives on the Holocaust

Three New Perspectives on the Holocaust Peter Hayes David Cesarani. Final Solution: The Fate of the Jews, 1933-49. London: Macmillan, 2016; New York: St. Martin's Press, 2016. Pp. xl + 1016. Tim Cole. Holocaust Landscapes. London: Bloomsbury Continuum, 2016. Pp. 262. Nikolaus Wachsmann. KL: A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015. Pp. xi + 865. Because the Holocaust remains a deeply unsettling subject, it continues to attract a great deal of scholarly energy. One indication of how much is the collective length of the three new studies under review here: almost 2,200 pages. Yet the extant literature is already so extensive that each new entrant comes with a heavy obligation to justify itself. The late David Cesarani's sweeping new narrative history faces up to this challenge squarely at the outset, and his response has much to recommend it. First, he identifies a genuine problem: the "yawning gulf between popular understanding of this history and current scholarship on the subject" (p. xxv). Second, he sets out to remedy this by correcting a number of persistent myths about the Holocaust long discredited by research, namely, that anti-Semitism played a decisive role in bringing Hitler to power, that murdering the Jews was the Hitler's and/or the Nazi regime's plan from day one, that the machinery of deportation and death was well oiled and technologically sophisticated, and that slaughtering the Jews detracted from the German war effort. Each of these assertions, Cesarani rightly contends, is not merely wrong but rather the opposite of the truth. Nor are these the only salutary contributions that Cesarani makes. He bravely challenges prevailing piety about survivor testimony and the taboos it upholds, many related to humiliating, often sexual situations [End Page 569] (pp. xvi–xvii). He correctly reminds us that "the current narrative is lopsided" in favor of events in Western Europe, as opposed to those in the East where most Jews died (p. xxvi). And he is—again appropriately in my view—adamant that the Holocaust was primarily about Jews because only they "were characterized as an implacable, powerful, global enemy that had to be fought at every turn and finally eliminated" (p. xxxix). Finally, in particularly strong passages, he vividly recreates the excruciating dilemmas of the Jewish Councils and the ultimate futility of any reaction they chose; shows how Nazi pressures shattered Jews' solidarity and often their moral standards; makes clear that most German perpetrators were both aware of what they were doing and convinced of its rightness; and exposes the extensive collaboration provided by numerous Poles in identifying, attacking, and helping to kill Jews. But key interpretations strike me as overdone. The general argument that developments in the war dictated the fate of the Jews is true with regard to the growing reluctance of the Reich's allies to surrender their Jews to Himmler as the tide turned against Germany. The point also holds with regard to the Jews of France, who might have died if the invasion and breakout from Normandy had been delayed. Conversely, of course, the duration of the war—the time it took the Allies to win—extended the massacre. But the claim (p. 294) that the "pause" in the euthanasia action in August 1941 was not a consequence of protests by German clerics—but rather of Germany's slower than expected advance into the USSR, mounting air raids, and increased shortages at home—is not substantiated by any information in the three secondary sources cited. With regard to the onset of the Final Solution, Cesarani makes two other war-related arguments that I find unconvincing. First, he contends that the murder of the Polish intelligentsia (Operation Tannenberg) was a more important "bridge" to the Final Solution than the massacre of the mentally and physically handicapped in German institutions (Aktion T4; p. 286). But I can see no reason to choose between them: Tannenberg was a harbinger of mass shooting by the Einsatzgruppen, but T4 heralded (and supplied the personnel for) the mass gassing of Jews. Second, Cesarani asserts that the decision for the Final Solution occurred at the end of 1941 as "the result of...

Pedagogia da vigilância: o jesuíta na aldeia (séculos xvi e xvii)

Resumo Aprofundar a discussão acerca da prática jesuítica na província do Brasil no final do século XVI e início do XVII é a preocupação primeira deste artigo. Nesse caminho, resgatam-se alguns apontamentos a respeito dos instrumentos de vigilância que a chamada Contrarreforma pôs em cena, a fim de oferecer ao leitor as condicionantes históricas que perpassaram a atividade dos inacianos no período. Em seguida, faz- -se uso de documentos pesquisados no Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu e na Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuelle, ambos em Roma. Por meio dessa documentação, tem-se a intenção de instigar o leitor a uma nova perspectiva em relação à atuação dos jesuítas na América portuguesa, fundamentalmente porque a fonte de que se faz uso neste artigo ainda foi pouco explorada.