Xiongnu Period Research Articles

Nine types of iron smelting furnaces in southern Siberia in the first millennium AD: A review of archaeological and chronological data

This article systematizes all currently known archaeological data and radiocarbon dates related to iron-smelting furnaces from Southern Siberia. On the basis of 159 excavated and well-preserved furnaces, nine construction types can be identified. The analysis of a series of radiocarbon dates made it possible to revise previous models about emergence and development of iron metallurgy in Southern Siberia and neighboring regions. We conclude that iron metallurgy developed in the region not in the Scythian time, as has long been assumed, but in the subsequent Xiongnu period of the 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE. During the 3rd–6th centuries CE, metallurgy flourished, which is expressed in the different types and numerous smelting furnaces that coexisting in the same region. This article raises for the first time the problem we have called the ancient Türkic metallurgy paradox. This inexplicable phenomenon describes the sudden and almost complete disappearance of iron metallurgy in Southern Siberia in the 7th century CE.

Изменчивость лицевого скелета у носителей джетыасарской археологической культуры Восточного Приаралья по данным 3D геометрической морфометрии

Introduction. The origin of the Jetyasar culture’s population remains a subject of debate. It was generally accepted that the Xiongnu penetrated into the Aral Sea region and participated in the formation of the local population. Previous studies have shown a complex and admixed origin of the Jetyasar people. But the spread of the head deformation tradition in this population imposes serious limitations on the application of craniometric methods for studying Jetyasar samples. Those limitations can be potentially mitigated with the use of geometric morphometrics (GM). The purpose of this work was to assess the degree of variation in the facial skeleton of the Jetyasar people in comparison with populations of the Early Iron Age and the Hunno-Sarmatian period. Material and methods. Digital, three-dimensional models of the skulls were created. Ten landmarks were placed on each of the models and subjected to general Procrustes analysis (GPA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Results. The first PC of the analysis of the total male sample reflects variation in the height of the face, nasal bridge protrusion, and the relative width of the infraorbital region. The second component describes the height of the lateral part of the zygomatic process of the maxilla and the adjacent part of the zygomatic bone. The Kosasar 2 male sample is the most diverse morphologically. This burial ground, according to archeological data, belonged to a migrant population related to the Xiongnu. In the female total sample, high values of the first PC are associated with a tall face, a weak nasal bridge protrusion, and a long zygomatic-maxillary suture. The second PC describes the morphology of the zygomatic process of the upper jaw. The Jetyasar samples are morphologically distinct from the skulls from China, Mongolia, Western Siberia, and Southern Siberia. An exception are the crania from the burial grounds of Kosasar 2, 3, and Altyn-Asar 4t which are similar to the early Iron Age samples from China (inner Mongolia, Warring States period, 5 th – 3rd centuries BC), Mongolia (Xiongnu period), and Tuva (Arzhan-2). Discussion. The Xiongnu migration could become a catalyst for the admixture and ethnogenetic processes in the region. Conclusion. Our study shows that the population of the Jetyasar culture was morphologically heterogeneous at all stages of the culture’s development. The hypothesis about the migrant roots of a part of the population is confirmed by our data.

НОВЫЕ ДАННЫЕ О ВОЗВРАТЕ ДРЕВНЕГО ОРОШАЕМОГО ЗЕМЛЕДЕЛИЯ В ТУВЕ

According to the conducted research, the Republic of Tuva is an area of ancient agriculture, which was facilitated by the geographical location and natural conditions, first of all, the mountainous terrain and the abundance of rivers in this territory. Practically in all river valleys of the region there are various irrigation systems corresponding to the capabilities of technology and the organization of social labor of certain historical periods. Here you can observe all the stages of irrigation development. According to В.А. Latynin’s classification, it is the stage of early irrigated agriculture, the stage of the simplest types of irrigation channels that turn into complex fan irrigation systems. The presence of the rudiments of agriculture in the Neolithic is evidenced by the finds of pollen of cultivated barley aged 6–5 thousand years in the valley of the Small Yenisei, made by S.B. Potakhin. Mining and ore production contributed to the development of agriculture in the Bronze Age — there are large copper deposits in the bowels of Tuva. According to the conducted research, developed irrigated agriculture existed in this territory in the Xiongnu period (Ubsunur basin, SOAN-9199; East Tuva Highlands, SOAN-9201). In 2022, radiocarbon dating was obtained for the first time, confirming the presence of irrigated agriculture in Tuva in the 1st millennium BC, Scythian-Saka time.

흉노 표비의 성립과 주변

There are two similarities in the iron bits before Xiongnu Period, as known as Schyto-Siberian Culture period, which was existed around the eastern Eurasian steppe area in terms of using two pieces of iron rods made of bronze and having two holes on the bit to connect to the horse straps. During Xiongnu Period, people accepted the previous traditions which are having the two holes on a bit and making the two edges of a bit symmetrically. They began in earnest to use iron to make the iron bits to make their own shape of bits. The characteristic of Xiongnu iron bits can be seen in the iron bits of Han Dynasty which was existed at the same time with Xiongnu in the structure and shape including having the two holes on the bit to connect to the horse straps and making the two edges symmetrically. On the other hand, Han iron bits have their own characteristics such as using three pieces of iron rods and decoration on the two edges of the bit. The iron bits in Korean Peninsula can be divided into two regional bases, the western North Korea and Yeongnam areas. Among the iron bits from the western North Korea, there are S-shape bits that look similar to one in Xiongnu bits. There are gaps of time and distance in the iron bits from the western North Korea and Xiongnu so that it is hard to assumed that the S-shaped iron bits of the both regions are directly related. But it is reliable that there is technological connection between the two regions in terms of having the two holes on the bit. In Yeongnam area, S-shaped and I-shaped iron bits are found. It is assumed that the S-shaped bits were came to the area through the relationship with the western North Korea. On the other hand, I-shaped iron bits are only found in this area. The I-shaped iron bits look the same with Xiongnu iron bits (e.g. axe blade-shaped bits) so that it could be thought of Xiongnu's impact on Yeongnam except for and manufacturing technique of rods. In this study, I could examine the formation of Xiongnu iron bits and the relationship with the surrounding areas including Han dynasty and Korean Peninsula. Base on the Xiongnu iron bits, I wanted to scrutinize overall aspect of the eastern Eurasian iron bits.

Analysis of mitochondrialDNAhaplogroup frequencies in the population of the slab burial mortuary culture of Mongolia (ca. 1100–300 BCE)

AbstractRecent research has shown evidence of ancient admixture from both eastern and western Eurasian genetics in the human populations of Mongolia going back to at least the Eneolithic Afanasievo archaeological culture (ca. 3000 BCE). Eastern mtDNA lineages found in ancient and living Mongolians in the past and present have greatest affinity with Neolithic populations from the Transbaikal region of southern Siberia, suggesting that people from this region were likely the first to colonize northern and eastern Mongolia after the last glacial maximum (ca. 24,500–17,000 BCE), while western Eurasian groups probably migrated to the steppe in association with the earliest forms of pastoralism. While some studies suggest the contribution of these ancient western lineages to the modern populations in Mongolia was minimal, this research demonstrates that western mtDNA lineages were particularly prominent among the burial populations of the Early Iron and Iron Ages in the region. This is most notable among the burial population associated with slab burials and the burial population of their successors, the people associated with the Xiongnu polity (209 BCE–91 CE). Similarities between mtDNA haplogroup frequencies of the slab burial and Xiongnu burial populations also strongly support the proposal that the builders of the slab burials were the principal ancestors of the Xiongnu people.ObjectivesThe objective of this research is to increase understanding of human population change on the Mongolian steppe during the first millennium BCE and how it may be associated with cultural change and the creation of early eastern steppe empires. It examines the mtDNA haplogroup frequencies of the burial population from slab burials in Mongolia and compares it with frequencies from various other populations to determine population affinities.MethodsThis study was primarily based on Sanger sequencing the HV1 of the mtDNA of ancient individuals from Mongolia during the Early Iron Age for haplogroup determination and then comparing mtDNA haplogroup frequencies with previously published data including 110 ancient and modern populations. The 21 samples used in this study were selected based on region, dating, and availability. Pairwise Fsts of mtDNA haplogroup frequencies were calculated using the Arlequin population genetics program.ResultsThe mtDNA hg of 20 of 21 samples are determined and added to previously published data, increasing the total sample to 35 for the particular population of interest. Using this mtDNA gene pool, it is determined that by the Late Bronze Age an east–west mixed population has already been established, which stays relatively stable into the Iron Age (Xiongnu) period, suggesting that the people practicing the slab burial tradition are the most likely biological ancestors of the Xiongnu. It also notes a distinct difference in mtDNA haplogroup frequencies between north‐eastern and central populations in Mongolia during the Iron Age.ConclusionsThere was little change in mtDNA haplogroup frequencies during the first millennium BCE, which contrasts with the clear change in the first millennium CE. MtDNA hg frequencies (matrilines) seemed to be stable at around 28%; however, Y‐ch frequencies have a dramatic shift towards western lineages during the Xiongnu period (300 BCE–200 CE). The mtDNA haplogroup frequencies from the population from the slab burials have close affinity with the Xiongnu population frequencies. This suggests a notable and consistent western Eurasian component in Mongolia during the first millennium BCE, established before the end of the Bronze Age and possibly associated with the introduction of the domestic horse.

Horses from Xiongnu Elite Burial Complex Tsaram

The paper presents morphological description of horse remains from the elite burial complex Tsaram dated to the Xiongnu period. The complex is located in the Kyakhtinsky district of the Republic of Buryatia (Russia) and consists of one central burial № 7 and accompanying funerary objects. In the grave pit of the largest burial a typical Han chariot was found, which was damaged during later intrusions. The skeletal remains (skull, two cervical vertebrae, metapodials and phalanges) belonged to one stallion were excavated near the chariot. At the northern edge of the grave pit the sacrificial complex with numerous remains of domestic animals was discovered. The animal sacrifice included remains of 25 horse individuals, both males and females. All bone remains originate from incomplete skeletons: only bones of the head, distal parts of the forelimbs and hind limbs are presented. The anatomical composition of the skeletons suggests that in the funeral practice horse skins were used instead of whole carcasses. Among sacrificed horses, adult and senile individuals predominated. The number of young individuals is small, while juveniles are absent. The withers height attributes horses to the small, short and medium Vitt's categories. The chariot horse had a larger body size than other horses. The morphometric analysis demonstrates that Tsaram horses are different in the size and proportions of the limb bones from the Paziryk and Bulan-Kobin horses.

Prehistoric Mongolian Archaeology in the Early 21st Century: Developments in the Steppe and Beyond

There has been a great increase in archaeological research in Mongolia since 2000. Increasingly precise chronologies, regional studies, and the growth of development-driven archaeology are transforming our knowledge of this key region of northeastern Asia. This review summarizes recent work and provides a narrative of the prehistoric and medieval cultural sequences as presently understood. I focus on long-standing key topics: early human habitation, the adoption of food-producing economies, Bronze Age social transformations, and the emergence of central places and large polities. I argue that, on the one hand, Mongolia has unique data and new examples to offer the archaeological community and, on the other, that the prehistory of Mongolia and the steppe are not so different from the rest of the world in its history of research and key questions. This review provides general overviews covering the Upper Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic or Neolithic, and Bronze Age to the Xiongnu period; specific data related to each period provide jumping-off points for comparative analysis and further examination.

Genetic evidence suggests a sense of family, parity and conquest in the Xiongnu Iron Age nomads of Mongolia.

In an effort to characterize the people who composed the groups known as the Xiongnu, nuclear and whole mitochondrial DNA data were generated from the skeletal remains of 52 individuals excavated from the Tamir Ulaan Khoshuu (TUK) cemetery in Central Mongolia. This burial site, attributed to the Xiongnu period, was used from the first century BC to the first century AD. Kinship analyses were conducted using autosomal and Y-chromosomal DNA markers along with complete sequences of the mitochondrial genome. These analyses suggested close kin relationships between many individuals. Nineteen such individuals composed a large family spanning five generations. Within this family, we determined that a woman was of especially high status; this is a novel insight into the structure and hierarchy of societies from the Xiongnu period. Moreover, our findings confirmed that the Xiongnu had a strongly admixed mitochondrial and Y-chromosome gene pools and revealed a significant western component in the Xiongnu group studied. Using a fine-scale approach (haplotype instead of haplogroup-level information), we propose Scytho-Siberians as ancestors of the Xiongnu and Huns as their descendants.

Пряжки из сибирского гагата в погребениях эпохи хунну II–I вв. до н. э. в Туве

This paper is devoted to a rare type of archaeological finds, i. e. large buckles from Siberian jet with engraving and incrustation found at sites of the Xiongnu period over a broad territory from Manchuria to the Lower Volga region. The centre of their origin and distribution was probably in the north of Inner Asia which was the proveni- ence of the material itself for making the buckles — boghead coal or Siberian jet. Its main deposits are concentrated in the Irkutsk coalfields.

Комплексное исследование инкрустированных пряжек эпохи хунну

The paper presents the results of natural science studies of the base and colour inlay of four buckles of the Xiongnu period: three from the burial ground of Ala-Tey 1 (Tuva) and one from the cemetery of Kamenka V (Khakassia). Buckles with many-coloured incrustation and the best preserved inserts were selected for examination. The base of the buckles was made from fossilized coal, probably of the boghead type. Among the inlay materials of the buckles, cornelian, moganite, turquoise, fuchsite and nacre were identified.

Archaeological discoveries in Tuva: excavations of the Ala-Tey and Terezin cemeteries of the Xiongnu period in 2015–2016

Archaeological sites in the territory of Tuva possibly related to the Xiongnu culture include the burial sites of Bay-Dag 2, Aymyrlyg-XXXI, Urbiun-III, and the recently discovered burial sites of Terezin and Ala-Tey, all located in the Ulug-Khem (Yenisei) River basin, at the entrance to the Sayan canyon of Yenisei. This critical location marks the start of the route to the Minusinsk Hollow through the Sayan Mountains and possesses the largest and best grazing areas in Central Tuva. About 50 flat graves of the Xiongnu period have been excavated at Ala-Tey and Terezin: burial types include stone cists and pits faced with stone or wood. Burial positions were mainly stretched, supine but several burials feature flexed legs. Each grave contained either one or two ceramic vessels. Unlike Ala-Tey, at Terezin, weaponry was found, namely, a bone bow strengthener and an arrowhead. Burials at both sites include many decorations for belts and clothing, beads, pendants, earrings, Chinese wu zhu coins, and Western Han mirrors and their fragments. The openwork bronze belt plaques represent true masterpieces of ancient nomadic art. Artifact types and AMS dates suggest these sites may date to the second-first centuries BC.

Города эпохи хунну на территории Тувы

Города эпохи хунну на территории Тувы

Complicating the frontier: Armaments, fortifications, and identities beyond the Great Wall

The recovery of iron and bronze “bimetallic” crossbow bolts from walled settlements located in the Mongolian Gobi Desert reflects the presence of Han dynasty material culture along the Inner Asian frontier during the Xiongnu period (ca. 3rd century BCE - 2nd century CE). Seventeen artifacts, mostly from frontier outposts, including eleven of these bimetallic projectile weapons and two bronze components of crossbows, were examined for their bronze chemical composition and microstructure. A majority of these artifacts were cast from alloys containing substantial amounts of tin and lead, with the alloy content generally much higher and more consistent in the bolts than in other crossbow components. The standard use of both tin and lead in most of these objects, as well as their process of assembly, suggest manufacture in an environment supporting large-scale, mass-production technologies typical of the Han dynasty. Some of the bolts examined, however, were made following significantly different alloy recipes, suggesting that they were likely produced away from well-supplied manufacturing centers. Given the clear limitations of the small number of objects analyzed, we combine our metallurgical results with insights from surface survey around these settlements to propose some preliminary observations about site arrangements, armaments, and supply lines. Although preliminary in nature, these differences hint at the complexities of politics and affiliation along the Inner Asian frontier.

The feldspar pIRIR and quartz OSL on silty-clay sediments from walled ramparts in Orkhon Valley, Mongolia

The comparison of the luminescence results obtained on different minerals from young silty-clay sediments associated with the walled fortification are presented. The general agreement between ages based on the quartz OSL, feldspar IRSL as well as feldspar IR50 and fine grains IR50 was obtained for well bleached samples, while feldspar pIRIR180 overestimated it. Based on age–preheat plot, where feldspar pIRIR signals using varying preheat and stimulation temperatures were investigated, the increase in De towards higher temperatures was related to an increase of residual doses. Furthermore, the fitting parameters of the IR and pIRIR decay curves were affected differently at preheats >230 °C, justifying the use of pIRIR180 for young samples. For incompletely bleached feldspar sample ML4, the presence of the residual dose (up to 12% of De) suggested there might be a link between the high residuals and the incomplete bleaching.For the first time we questioned the possibility of dating such architectural structures well presented in the Orkhon Valley, Mongolia. The study suggests that at the site “Lungijn Durvulzhin” the oldest part of the ramparts was constructed at 60 ± 100 BC (OSL), confirming human occupation and settlement activities during the Xiongnu period (200 BC–150 AD) and indicating reconstructing during 950 ± 70 AD.

Поясные пряжки кочевников Алтая хуннуского времени: классификация и типология

Поясные пряжки кочевников Алтая хуннуского времени: классификация и типология

A Hoard Found on the Uibat River, Minusinsk Basin

The article describes a hoard found on the Uibat River, southern Siberia. The hoard includes artifacts typical of the second stage of the Tes culture. Iron and bronze items resemble those discovered in hoards and burials in the Altai and Khakassia and dated to the 2nd century BC – 1st century AD. Certain rare specimens are relevant to the ethnic and political reconstruction of southern Siberia during the Xiongnu period.

Ancient bronze technology and nomadic communities of the Middle Gobi Desert, Mongolia

The Xiongnu period of Mongolian prehistory (ca. 3rd century BC–AD 2nd century) is notable for the emergence of an expansive nomadic state and major changes in metallurgical and ceramic technologies. A number of Xiongnu period and pre-Xiongnu period bronze and bronze-related artifacts from the site at Baga Gazaryn Chuluu in the Middle Gobi province of Mongolia were examined for their chemical compositions and microstructures. They include finished objects, leftovers from casting, and pieces of slag from copper smelting and the assemblage likely represents a combination of local and regional production as well as long-distance exchange items. Results show that the entire bronze manufacturing process, from smelting to fabrication, is represented at BGC sites and bronze working may have been technologically self-sufficient, though ore sources are still uncertain. Our evidence suggests that this bronze assemblage was the result of two different technological traditions characterized by either the dominant use of arsenic, enforced apparently by restriction in tin supply, or the profuse use of both tin and lead. The arsenic-based tradition was observed in the majority of pre-Xiongnu period objects while the tin and lead recipes were verified in most objects dating to the Xiongnu period. This shift in bronze tradition may reflect changes in inter-regional interaction with frontier groups beyond the Gobi Desert and with the early state societies of China.

Early Influence of the Steppe Tribes in the Peopling of Siberia

The Yakuts, Middle Age Turkic speakers (15th-16th centuries), are widely accepted as the first settlers of the Altai-Baikal area in eastern Siberia. They are supposed to have introduced horses and developed metallurgy in this geographic area during the 15th or 16th century A.D. The analysis of the Siberian grave of Pokrovsk, recently discovered near the Lena River (61 degrees 29' N) and dated by accelerator mass spectrometry from 2,400 to 2,200 years B.P., may provide new elements to test this hypothesis. The exceptional combination of various artifacts and the mitochondrial DNA data extracted from the bone remains of the Pokrovsk man might prove the existence of previous contacts between autochthonous hunters of Oriental Siberia and the nomadic horse breeders from the Altai-Baikal area (Mongolia and Buryatia). Indeed, the stone arrowhead and the harpoons relate this Pokrovsk man to the traditional hunters of the Taiga. Some artifacts made of horse bone and the pieces of armor, however, are related to the tribes of Mongolia and Buryatia of the Xiongnu period (3rd century B.C.). This affinity has been confirmed by the match of the mitochondrial haplotype of this subject with a woman of the Egyin Gol necropolis (Mongolia, 2nd/3rd century A.D.) as well as with two modern Buryats. This result allows us to postulate that contacts between southern steppe populations and Siberian tribes occurred before the 15th century.

Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of a 2,000-Year-Old Necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia

DNA was extracted from the skeletal remains of 62 specimens excavated from the Egyin Gol necropolis, in northern Mongolia. This burial site is linked to the Xiongnu period and was used from the 3rd century b.c. to the 2nd century a.d. Three types of genetic markers were used to determine the genetic relationships between individuals buried in the Egyin Gol necropolis. Results from analyses of autosomal and Y chromosome short tandem repeats, as well as mitochondrial DNA, showed close relationships between several specimens and provided additional background information on the social organization within the necropolis as well as the funeral practices of the Xiongnu people. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study using biparental, paternal, and maternal genetic systems to reconstruct partial genealogies in a protohistoric necropolis.

Megaplex analysis of a Mongolian population from the Egyin Gol site (300 B.C.–300 A.D.)

Genetic analysis of archaeological remains may provide information of prime importance to the understanding of human past history. In order to investigate the history of Mongolian populations, we have analyzed the skeletal remains of 56 specimens excavated from the Egyin Gol necropolis located in northern Mongolia. This burial site is linked to the Xiongnu period, which extended from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. The environmental conditions at this site were cold and dry, and the DNA preservation was exceptional, allowing nuclear markers such as microsatellites to be studied. Molecular analyses were performed on long cortical bone samples with the AmplF lSTR Profiler Plus kit (Applied Biosystems). Amplifications were successful for 47 of the 56 specimens analysed. Molecular sexing confirmed archeological data based on morphometric parameters and allowed the gender of four juvenile skeletons to be determined. Short tandem repeat (STR) analysis showed close relationships between several specimens and provides additional background information concerning social organization within the necropolis as well as funeral practices linked to Xiongnu populations.