Xingu River Research Articles

High-Resolution Surface Water Classifications of the Xingu River, Brazil, Pre and Post Operationalization of the Belo Monte Hydropower Complex

We describe a new high spatial resolution surface water classification dataset generated for the Xingu river, Brazil, from its confluence with the Iriri river to the Pimental dam prior to construction of the Belo Monte hydropower complex, and after its operationalization. This river is well-known for its exceptionally high diversity and endemism in ichthyofauna. Pre-existing datasets generated from moderate resolution satellite imagery (e.g., 30 m) do not adequately capture the extent of the river. Accurate measurements of water extent are important for a range of applications utilizing surface water data, including greenhouse gas emission estimation, land cover change mapping, and habitat loss/change estimates, among others. We generated the new classifications from RapidEye imagery (5 m pixel size) for 2011 and PlanteScope imagery (3 m pixel size) for 2019 using a Geographic Object Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA) approach.

A journey through the Amazon Middle Earth reveals Aspidoras azaghal (Siluriformes: Callichthyidae), a new species of armoured catfish from the rio Xingu basin, Brazil

Aspidoras azaghal n. sp. was discovered during a multitaxonomic scientific expedition to the remote Amazon Terra do Meio region in tributaries to the rio Xingu basin, Pará, Brazil. The new species can be promptly distinguished from its congeners by the following combination of features: (a) absence of the first dorsal-fin element; (b) parieto-supraoccipital fontanel located medially on bone; (c) absence of a longitudinal dark-brown or black stripe along flank midline; (d) ventral surface of trunk covered by clearly smaller, irregular and/or roundish platelets; (e) inner laminar expansion of infraorbital 1 well developed; (f) relatively wide frontal bone, with width equal to half of entire length; (g) absence of a thick, longitudinal conspicuous dark-brown stripe along dorsal portion of flank; and (h) poorly developed serrations on posterior margin of the pectoral-fin spine. Besides morphological evidence, the molecular analyses indicated significant differences between the new species and its congeners, with A. albater and A. raimundi as its closest species, showing 6.53% of genetic differentiation in both cases. The intraspecific molecular data revealed gene flow (peer fixation index, FST = 0.05249, P > 0.05, for the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) marker and FST = -0.01466, P > 0.05, for the control region) between specimens upstream and downstream from a 30-m height waterfall at the type-locality, which therefore represent a single population. Furthermore, it was possible to observe a unidirectional gene flow pattern, with genetic diversity increasing in the downstream direction.

Evapotranspiration and Precipitation over Pasture and Soybean Areas in the Xingu River Basin, an Expanding Amazonian Agricultural Frontier

The conversion from primary forest to agriculture drives widespread changes that have the potential to modify the hydroclimatology of the Xingu River Basin. Moreover, climate impacts over eastern Amazonia have been strongly related to pasture and soybean expansion. This study carries out a remote-sensing, spatial-temporal approach to analyze inter- and intra-annual patterns in evapotranspiration (ET) and precipitation (PPT) over pasture and soybean areas in the Xingu River Basin during a 13-year period. We used ET estimates from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and PPT estimates from the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) satellite. Our results showed that the annual average ET in the pasture was ~20% lower than the annual average in soybean areas. We show that PPT is notably higher in the northern part of the Xingu River Basin than the drier southern part. ET, on the other hand, appears to be strongly linked to land-use and land-cover (LULC) patterns in the Xingu River Basin. Lower annual ET averages occur in southern areas where dominant LULC is savanna, pasture, and soybean, while more intense ET is observed over primary forests (northern portion of the basin). The primary finding of our study is related to the fact that the seasonality patterns of ET can be strongly linked to LULC in the Xingu River Basin. Further studies should focus on the relationship between ET, gross primary productivity, and water-use efficiency in order to better understand the coupling between water and carbon cycling over this expanding Amazonian agricultural frontier.

Diet and foraging behavior of Ageneiosus inermis (Teleostei, Auchenipteridae)

Ageneiosus inermisis the largest species of the family Auchenipteridae (Siluriformes) and has a primarily piscivorous diet, although no comprehensive data are available on the habitat use of this species. Given this, the present study describes the diet ofA. inermis, and provides inferences on its habitat use, based on the known behavior of its prey species. We analyzed the stomach contents of 14 specimens collected in the middle of Xingu River in the Brazilian state of Pará, which we complemented with data on 47 other specimens obtained from two published studies. Most of the ingested items were fish associated with the bottom substrate and riverbanks. AlthoughA. inermisis considered a pelagic species, we conclude it forages by exploring the river’s bottom and margins. Furthermore, asA. inermisis presumed to be diurnal, we assume that it does not pursue its prey actively, given that most of the prey species are nocturnal, but rather searches actively during the daytime for prey hidden in the bottom substrate. This hypothesis on the feeding strategy ofA. inermiscan only be confirmed by underwater observations, either in the wild or under captive conditions.

Barragem dos bilhões

Este artigo tem como objetivo realizar uma análise dos custos dagrande construção da usina hidrelétrica de Belo Monte, que se localiza às margensdo Rio Xingu, próxima ao município de Altamira, no sudoeste do estadodo Pará. Para atingir este objetivo, o trabalho possui outros três objetivos específicos:1) Averiguar os custos da hidrelétrica de Belo Monte; 2) Apresentar oorçamento inicial e final da usina; 3) Entender quais as razões para o planejamentofinanceiro da hidrelétrica ter fracassado. Para atender a estes objetivos, ametodologia utilizada foi uma pesquisa qualitativa e exploratória, de caráter bibliográficoe documental, abrangendo temas como planejamento, análise prospectivade cenários e orçamento, de modo a apresentar e entender porque os custosfinais da Hidrelétrica de Belo Monte foram consideravelmente mais altos do queos custos iniciais previstos no planejamento.

Indigenous territories and governance of forest restoration in the Xingu River (Brazil)

During the early 2000s, indigenous and non-indigenous peoples inhabiting the headwaters of the Xingu River (Mato Grosso state, Brazil) engaged in a collective decision to undertake the `Y Ikatu Xingu Campaign, a social phenomenon and forum for the restoration and protection of Xingu’s headwaters and riparian forests–a common-pool resources shared by indigenous, farmers, and urban populations in the region. These areas have been significantly deforested over the last 50 years due to public policies and land privatization aiming at economic development, agricultural and agribusiness expansion in Central and Amazonian Brazil. These political and economic drivers contributed to the conversion of five million hectares of Seasonal Evergreen Forests and Cerrados (Brazilian savanna) into agricultural land. In order to reverse the damaging trends of the future of the Xingu River and promote common benefits to indigenous and non-indigenous peoples, the Campaign fostered the creation of the Xingu Seed Network to promote exchange and commercialization of native seeds demanded by farmers and landholders for planting and restoring permanent preservation areas, such as riparian forests, and vegetation associated with lakes and springs of the Suiá-Miçu River Basin. The aim of this study is to examine the role played by the 'Y Ikatu Campaign in the conservation of these common-pool resources – Xingu’s headwaters, riparian forests and rivers–and in mobilizing heterogeneous social groups living in this region to engage in the protection of the watershed.. Our analysis focuses on socially and culturally diverse inhabitants (indigenous and farmers) of the Suiá-Miçu River Basin, who are searching for innovative technologies for the recovery of riparian areas, and for income generation for local communities. The Institutional Analysis and Development framework was adopted as an approach for understanding interactions of multiple social agents, governmental and non-governmental organizations, engaged in the process of restoration and protection of common resources. Spatial and temporal land-cover changes analysis of the Suiá-Miçu River Basin show an increase in deforestation during the past 40 years, primarily for soybean farming and pastures. We showed that indigenous people have a fundamental role in questioning and advancing the outcomes of restoration efforts, and monitoring environmental impact on water quality of rivers, as well as on conditions of forests and other ecosystems surrounding indigenous lands. We discuss the perspectives of Kĩsêdjê indigenous inhabitants of the environmental governance related to restoration efforts and monitoring, and their concerns with a dynamic scenario of agribusiness expansion in the Xingu River Headwaters region.

Land use changes in Southeastern Amazon and trends in rainfall and water yield of the Xingu River during 1976–2015

Since the early 1970s, the agricultural frontier of southeastern Amazon has undergone extensive land use changes. These alterations, combined with regional climate changes, have the potential to influence the hydrologic cycle at small to large scales. We evaluated a 40-year time series (1976 to 2015) of rainfall and water yield and related them to land use changes in the Upper Xingu River Basin (UX). We acquired data from six rainfall stations and four river gauges and mapped land use changes. Mann-Kendall trend analysis and Pettitt’s change point detection were employed to describe annual and seasonal changes in the time series. Monthly water yield from the Xingu River was used to derive annual, seasonal, and monthly water yield, as well as the runoff coefficient. The largest changes in land use occurred during the last two decades and approximately 60,900 km2 in the Upper Xingu Basin were deforested between 1985 and 2015. Rainfall in the Xingu Basin decreased by about 245 mm over the period but there was no trend in water yield. The number of rainy days and intensity of events also decreased, but the length of the rainy season and seasonal and annual water yield did not change. Although watershed deforestation has increased water yield in other Amazon rivers, the reduction in rainfall in the Upper Xingu Basin was high enough to mask this effect.

Mammographic screening and socio-epidemiological profile of Amerindian riverside women in the Amazon forest.

e13573 Background: Breast cancer still represents the most common tumor among women in the world and in Brazil. Screening coverage in Brazil is much lower than what is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), which makes it difficult to perform an early diagnosis. Thus, the current work aims to carry out mammographic screening and the socio-epidemiological profile of Amerindian riverside women in the Amazon region. Methods: This study is characterized as sectional and the sample consists of 260 female patients, living riverside, from the communities of the Amazon Forest, Xingu and Tapajos rivers, interviewed after the mammography screening in a task force promoted by the Brazilian Navy. Results: The median patients age was 49 years (p25-75: 45-58), menarche was around 13 years (p25-75: 12-14), menopause was 48 years (p25-75: 43-50) and the median of pregnancies was four (p25-75: 2-6). Most patients were classified as BIRADS 1 (41.32%), 4 of the 8 suspected and highly suspected cases were confirmed as breast cancer, and these patients had no complaints (82.98%), did not use therapy hormonal (97.15%), and did not use oral contraceptives (60.57%) and breastfed during pregnancy (97.52%). Conclusions: There is a high prevalence of protective factors against cancer, related to lifestyle and local culture. However, these communities have minimal access to health services, which demonstrates actual need of public policies to assist Amerindian riverside women, in order to promote better health care and, thus, reduce one of the most prevalent diseases in the Amazon region. [Table: see text]

A new species of Hemiodus Müller (Characiformes: Hemiodontidae) from the lower Rio Xingu, Brazil.

A new species of Hemiodus is described from the Rio Xingu basin, Pará, Brazil. It is distinguished from congeners by the combination of presence of a dark longitudinal stripe extending from head to tip of lower caudal-fin lobe, an oblique blotch on dorsal-fin, 9-11 scale rows above lateral line, 58-66 perforated lateral line scales, and 17-20 circumpeduncular scales. Comments on the conservation status of the new species, as well as its relationships among Hemiodus species, are made.

New length‐weight and length‐length relationships of the fish fauna from the Xingu River, Amazon Basin, Brazil

This study provides new length‒weight (LWR) and length‒length relationships (LLR) for 25 indigenous fish species from Xingu River basin. Overall specimens were collected in different aquatic habitats in the Xingu River basin in quarterly collections between 2012 and 2018. The collections were carried out using distinct fishing gears, such as gill nets (20 to 180 mm mesh), seines (3 mm mesh), sieves (1 mm mesh), and casting nets (20 to 60 mm mesh). The present study shows the LWRs for 25 species, and the LLRs for 23 species. In addition, presents the new maximum total lengths for 20 species.

Energia limpa e limpeza étnica

Abstract This article analyzes the discursive, juridical, and political conditions of the environmental catastrophe of Belo Monte, a hydroelectric dam on the Xingu River with serious ecocidal consequences for the Amazon. The article traces the history of the project since its conception by the military dictatorship in 1975 through its several defeats at the hands of mobilized indigenous and riverbank Xingu populations in the 1980s and 1990s to its contested construction by the Lula and Rousseff administrations between 2005 and 2016. The Belo Monte dam was unique in that it was carried out by the very political party that had been the local populations’ most steadfast ally in defeating the project on previous attempts at executing it. Belo Monte was also intensely judicialized, with the Executive managing to delay decisions on the merit with repeated injunctions, while they turned the dam into an irreversible fact. The article analyzes that juridical singularity in the light of what later became known about Belo Monte as the epitome of how electoral campaigns have been financed in Brazil. The article also reconstructs arguments by indigenous leaders, biologists, anthropologists, energy specialists, law scholars, and local riverbank dwellers who correctly predicted the consequences of Belo Monte: the drying up of one hundred kilometers of the Xingu River (known as “Volta Grande”), extinctions of species, massive mortality of fish (crushed by turbines or starved to death), the impoverishment of indigenous and riverbank populations now packed in the outskirts of Altamira, and a host of other environmental, criminological, and medical effects. The title alludes to the role played by the rhetoric of “clean energy” [energia limpa] that has accompanied the hydroelectric dam business in Brazil, suggesting that in the case of Belo Monte another kind of “cleanliness” was at stake altogether, i.e. ethnic cleansing.

Variational estimation of effective channel and ungauged anabranching river discharge from multi-satellite water heights of different spatial sparsity

Multi-satellite sensing of continental water surfaces (WS) represents an unprecedented and increasing potential for studying ungauged hydrological and hydraulic processes from their signatures, especially on complex flow zones such as anabranching rivers. However the estimation of discharge from WS observations only is a very challenging, ill-posed, inverse problem due to unknown bathymetry and friction in ungauged rivers, measurements nature, quality and spatio-temporal resolutions regarding the flow (model) scales. This paper proposes an effective 1D hydraulic modeling approach of sufficient complexity to describe anabranching river flows from sparse multisatellite observations using the HiVDI inverse method presented in Larnier et al. (2019) with an augmented control vector including a spatially distributed friction law K(x,h) depending on the flow depth h. It is shown on 71 km of the Xingu River (anabranching, Amazon basin) with altimetric water height timeseries that a fairly accurate upstream discharge hydrograph and effective patterns of channel bathymetry and friction can be inferred simultaneously. The coherence between the sparse observation grid and the fine hydraulic model grid is ensured in the optimization process by imposing a piecewise linear bathymetry profile b(x), which is consistent with the hydraulic visibility ofWS signatures (Garambois et al., 2017; Montazem et al., 2019). The discharge hydrograph Q(t) at observation times and effective bathymetry-friction b(x),K(x,h) patterns are retrieved from 8 years of satellite altimetry (ENVISAT) at 6 virtual stations (VS) along flow. Next, the potential of the forthcoming SWOT data, dense in space, is highlighted by inferring a discharge hydrograph and dense patterns of effective river bathymetry and friction; a physically consistent scaling of friction by reaches enables to consider more dense bathymetry controls. Finally a numerical analysis shows: (i) the importance of an unbiased prior information in the inference of a triplet Q,b(x),K(x,h) from WS observations; (ii) the clear signatures of river bottom slope break in low flows and width variations in high flows, through the analysis of the friction slope term, which is consistent with the findings of Montazem et al. (2019) from WS curvature analysis.

Monogenoids (Polyonchoinea, Dactylogyridae) from Hydrolycus armatus(Characiformes, Cynodontidae) with the description of a new species of Rhinoxenus and the proposal of a new genus from the Xingu River, Pará, Brazil.

One new species of Rhinoxenus Kritsky, Boeger & Thatcher, 1988 from the nasal cavities and four new species of Mymarothecioides n. gen. from the gills are described in Hydrolycus armatus (Jardine & Schomburgk). They were collected in the Xingu River, Pará, Brazil. Rhinoxenus cachorra n. sp. is characterized by having a ventral anchor with inconspicuous roots, and point with fish-hook-like termination; copulatory complex comprising a spiraled male copulatory organ (MCO) with two counterclockwise coils, and an accessory piece with an expanded, bifurcated distal portion. Mymarothecioides n. gen. is proposed and characterized for species without eyes, with or without accessory chromatic granules; copulatory complex comprising articulated MCO, accessory piece; MCO a broad arcuate tube; an accessory piece with a hooked termination in the distal portion; a dextro or midventral non-sclerotized vagina; an anteromedial projection on the ventral bar. Mymarothecium whittingtoni Kritsky, Boeger & Jégu, 1996 is transferred to Mymarothecioides n. gen. as Mymarothecioides whittingtoni (Kritsky, Boeger & Jégu, 1996) n. comb.

More than Fish – The Potential of Baited Remote Underwater Video to Assess Freshwater Herpetofauna and Dolphins

We discuss new applications of baited remote underwater video (BRUV) systems based on recordings of Amazonian freshwater fauna during a long-term fish monitoring program in the Xingu River, Brazil. BRUVs facilitated estimates of relative abundance and frequency of occurrence for species of river turtles (Podocnemis unifilis, P. expansa, Rhinoclemmys punctularia), river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis) and spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in a variety of habitats including rocky rapids, submerged sandy beaches, an artificial reservoir and the Xingu Ria.

Limites e lugares: entre caminhos mẽbêngôkre

Este trabalho reúne duas pesquisas feitas entre os Mẽbêngôkre, povo jê mais conhecido como Kayapó e habitante da bacia do Xingu. Realizadas em dois subgrupos distintos, no Pará (TI Kayapó) e no Mato Grosso (TI Capoto/Jarina), as etnografias aqui trabalhadas voltam atenção para a territorialidade mẽbêngôkre, explorando as andanças e a produção de redes de lugares-eventos nomeados, intimamente ligadas à organização sociopolítica desse povo. Os deslocamentos ainda são pouco explorados na literatura antropológica sobre os Mẽbêngôkre, apesar de constituírem tema praticamente onipresente nas narrativas dos anciãos. Partimos das enunciações toponímicas nesses relatos para observarmos a dinâmica da produção de lugares e sua relação com as separações históricas dos subgrupos mẽbêngôkre; onde também estão em jogo práticas estatais, como a demarcação das terras e o estabelecimento de limites estaduais, que, embora contrastando com a territorialidade mẽbêngôkre, acabam por fornecer um idioma para as relações políticas entre os diferentes subgrupos.

Is there sustainability for “satellite” ornamental fishing regions? A case study of Guamá River basin- Pará -Brasil

Ornamental fisheries and socio-economic aspects of fishermen in the major fishing regions in Brazil such as the Xingu River have been well studied. However, there is lack of information about the sustainability of “satellites” (auxiliary) fishing areas, which contribute towards supplying fish for exportation centers as Belém, the Capital of Pará state-Brazil. The ornamental fishery in the Guamá River basin is an example of an important activity that supports the families along the river, but it has low social returns and its sustainability is consequently in jeopardy without government aid. We collected fish samples and environmental data to evaluate the market chain aspects, fishery tools and techniques, fish handling and environmental issues of the region. We observed a reduction in numbers of families involved in the ornamental fishery over time. The intensification of anthropogenic impacts reduced the environmental integrity degree of fishing sites have resulted in lower fish diversity. The fishery was characterized by capture of a limited number of loricariids fish where the small ones are preferred. Thus the fishing is more selective and consequently an environmental issue. Economically, income is directly associated to the exportation market, consequently the US dollars value influences the species and quantity of the traded fish. Most of the fishermen work on an informal basis and have no intention to continue in this activity due to the low profits reflected by presence of middlemen which concentrates the profit. Therefore, without a management plan for improvement of fishing, environmental and fish quality, the activity presents risks of unsustainability. Suggestions to ensure the perpetuation of this activity are discussed.

Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) concentrations and emission in the newly constructed Belo Monte hydropower complex in the Xingu River, Amazonia

Abstract. The Belo Monte hydropower complex located in the Xingu River is the largest run-of-the-river (ROR) hydroelectric system in the world and has one of the highest energy production capacities among dams. Its construction received significant media attention due to its potential social and environmental impacts. It is composed of two ROR reservoirs: the Xingu Reservoir (XR) in the Xingu's main branch and the Intermediate Reservoir (IR), an artificial reservoir fed by waters diverted from the Xingu River with longer water residence time compared to XR. We aimed to evaluate spatiotemporal variations in CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) and CO2 fluxes (FCO2) during the first 2 years after the Xingu River impoundment under the hypothesis that each reservoir has contrasting FCO2 and pCO2 as vegetation clearing reduces flooded area emissions. Time of the year had a significant influence on pCO2 with the highest average values observed during the high-water season. Spatial heterogeneity throughout the entire study area was observed for pCO2 during both low- and high-water seasons. FCO2, on the other hand, only showed significant spatial heterogeneity during the high-water period. FCO2 (0.90±0.47 and 1.08±0.62 µmol m2 d−1 for XR and IR, respectively) and pCO2 (1647±698 and 1676±323 µatm for XR and IR, respectively) measured during the high-water season were on the same order of magnitude as previous observations in other Amazonian clearwater rivers unaffected by impoundment during the same season. In contrast, during the low-water season FCO2 (0.69±0.28 and 7.32±4.07 µmol m2 d−1 for XR and IR, respectively) and pCO2 (839±646 and 1797±354 µatm for XR and IR, respectively) in IR were an order of magnitude higher than literature FCO2 observations in clearwater rivers with naturally flowing waters. When CO2 emissions are compared between reservoirs, IR emissions were 90 % higher than values from the XR during low-water season, reinforcing the clear influence of reservoir characteristics on CO2 emissions. Based on our observations in the Belo Monte hydropower complex, CO2 emissions from ROR reservoirs to the atmosphere are in the range of natural Amazonian rivers. However, the associated reservoir (IR) may exceed natural river emission rates due to the preimpounding vegetation influence. Since many reservoirs are still planned to be constructed in the Amazon and throughout the world, it is critical to evaluate the implications of reservoir traits on FCO2 over their entire life cycle in order to improve estimates of CO2 emissions per kilowatt for hydropower projects planned for tropical rivers.

Análise dos programas ambientais de saúde no licenciamento ambiental de hidrelétricas na Amazônia legal brasileira

Objetivo: Analisar de forma crítica no âmbito dos processos de licenciamentos ambientais em hidrelétricas no Brasil, referentes aos programas ambientais de saúde direcionados para as populações afetadas nos reservatórios hidrelétricos de Belo Monte, Estreito e Santo Antônio, localizados na Amazônia Legal brasileira. Métodos: Pesquisa documental descritiva qualitativa em 3 áreas na Amazônia Legal brasileira, duas na região norte; UHE Belo Monte, localizada no rio Xingu e UHE Santo Antônio, no rio Madeira e uma área na região nordeste do Brasil, UHE Estreito, no rio Tocantins. Público estimado em 772.061. Instrumento de pesquisa elaborado pelo método Delphi. Resultados: Das 3 áreas de estudo, 107 programas ambientais, apresentaram se descritos no estudo de impacto ambiental (EIA), dentre os quais (10) programas e projetos referentes a saúde da população afetada. A estruturação e sistematização, apresentam incipiência no padrão técnico científico, referente a temática do estudo e ressaltam apenas uma doença como potencial de risco, a Malária. Conclusão: Evidencia-se a necessidade de um balanço crítico do modelo que vem sendo usado para a construção dos programas ambientais de saúde. Medidas técnicas, científicas e epidemiológicas efetivas devem ser introduzidas, além das considerações ambientais no processo decisório do licenciamento ambiental.

Spatiotemporal Variations of Riverine Discharge Within the Amazon Basin During the Late Holocene Coincide With Extratropical Temperature Anomalies

AbstractLate Holocene hydroclimate variations have been extensively recognized in Amazonia, but the effects of such changes on riverine discharge within the Amazon lowlands are still poorly understood. We investigated a sediment core covering circa 4,000 to 300 cal yr BP collected in the lower valley of the Xingu River (Xingu Ria) in an area under the influence of the Amazon River. Our results indicate a decrease in precipitation in the Amazon lowlands throughout the studied period and reduced input of coarser and potassium‐rich Amazon River sediments to the confluence from about 2,600 to 1,400 cal yr BP. We suggest that lower temperatures in the extratropical Southern Hemisphere weakened the South American Summer Monsoon and led to a decrease in the water discharge of the Amazon River during this period.

A New Multi-Temporal Forest Cover Classification for the Xingu River Basin, Brazil

We describe a new multi-temporal classification for forest/non-forest classes for a 1.3 million square kilometer area encompassing the Xingu River basin, Brazil. This region is well known for its exceptionally high biodiversity, especially in terms of the ichthyofauna, with approximately 600 known species, 10% of which are endemic to the river basin. Global and regional scale datasets do not adequately capture the rapidly changing land cover in this region. Accurate forest cover and forest cover change data are important for understanding the anthropogenic pressures on the aquatic ecosystems. We developed the new classifications with a minimum mapping unit of 0.8 ha from cloud free mosaics of Landsat TM5 and OLI 8 imagery in Google Earth Engine using a classification and regression tree (CART) aided by field photographs for the selection of training and validation points.