Xigaze Forearc Basin Research Articles

The birth of the Xigaze forearc basin in southern Tibet

The stratigraphic succession of a forearc basin provides crucial information on the history of a convergent plate margin. In particular, it helps to establish the origin of the underlying ophiolites and to unravel the earliest evolutionary stage of arc-trench systems, which remain poorly understood. The Xigaze forearc basin in southern Tibet is one of the best examples of a fossil forearc basin. This study illustrates detailed stratigraphic and high-precision SIMS U–Pb zircon geochronological and Hf isotopic data from the Chongdui Formation, representing the very base of the Xigaze forearc-basin succession, and reconstructs when and how the basin was formed. The Chongdui Formation includes tuffaceous chert and siliceous mudrocks deposited directly on top of pillow basalts of the Xigaze ophiolite and conformably overlain by volcaniclastic turbidites. Tuff layers are interbedded throughout the unit, and their U–Pb zircon ages range from 119 to 113 Ma in the lower member and from 113 to 110 Ma in the upper member, broadly consistent with the established radiolarian biostratigraphy. U–Pb ages and Hf isotope signatures of zircons contained in both tuff layers and turbiditic sandstones indicate clear affinity with magmatic rocks of the Lhasa terrane. Direct depositional and chronostratigraphic relationship with the underlying oceanic crust, dated between 131 and 124 Ma, proves that the Xigaze ophiolite is the basement of the Xigaze forearc basin. After an initial prolonged stage of starved siliceous sedimentation, influx of terrigenous detritus began at 113–110 Ma, reflecting the onset of topographic growth and erosion of the Lhasa terrane in response to intense magmatic activity. Formation of the ophiolitic basement during the early stage of subduction and the subsequent topographic growth of the arc source induced by subduction-related magmatism are thus two critical factors for the birth of the Xigaze forearc basin. Similar stratigraphies were identified in the Great Valley and Luzon Central Valley forearc basins, suggesting that the initial geodynamic evolution of the Xigaze forearc basin may be common to many other forearc basins worldwide.

Evolution and palaeogeographical dispersion of the radiolitid rudist genus Auroradiolites (Bivalvia, Hippuritida) with descriptions of new material from Tibet and archived specimens from Afghanistan

AbstractDiagnostic characters of the recently established new genus of radiolitid rudist Auroradiolites include an entirely compact outer shell layer, a distinctly convex upper (left) valve and a robust myocardinal apparatus surrounding a strongly internally projected ligamentary infolding. Until now, A. biconvexus (previously considered to be exclusively late Albian in age) has been reported only from the Langshan Formation, which crops out along the northern portion of the Lhasa block, Tibet. Here, it is recorded for the first time from the Sangzugang Formation of the Xigaze Forearc Basin, situated on the southern margin of the Lhasa block. A. biconvexus differs from the south‐west Asian type species A. gilgitensis (late Aptian to Albian) by its relatively larger size, more strongly domed left valve and distinct radial undulations of the outer shell layer. The characters of A. gilgitensis are further clarified from archived material from central Afghanistan, also newly identified and described herein. All Auroradiolites records to date are revised. The recognition of examples of A. biconvexus from upper Aptian strata increases both the stratigraphical and geographical ranges of the species, indicating that it had already branched off from A. gilgitensis in the late Aptian. Some new radiolitid specimens that combine both compact and cellular calcitic outer shell layer structures are also described from the Langshan Formation, but a number of internal differences from Auroradiolites cast doubt on their constituting a sister group to the latter and we assign them to Eoradiolites cf. hedini. Rather, the evolution of Auroradiolites directly from the ancestral radiolitid genus Agriopleura is favoured on the grounds of parsimony. So far, the genus Auroradiolites has been recorded from Iran, central and eastern Afghanistan, the type locality of Yasin in north‐western Pakistan, southern and northern Ladakh, the Lhasa block, as well as Hokkaido in northern Japan. During the late Aptian to Albian interval, all of these localities were associated with terranes and blocks that were limited to the north‐eastern margin of Tethys and the western Pacific margin, making Auroradiolites an indicator of a SW Asian to Pacific faunal province.

The Yarlung suture mélange, Lopu Range, southern Tibet: Provenance of sandstone blocks and transition from oceanic subduction to continental collision

With the aim of better understanding the history of ocean closure and suturing between India and Asia, we conducted a geologic investigation of a siliciclastic matrix tectonic mélange within the western Yarlung suture zone of southern Tibet (Lopu Range region, ~50km northwest of Saga). The siliciclastic matrix mélange includes abundant blocks of ocean plate stratigraphy and sparse blocks of sandstone. Metapelite and metabasite blocks in the mélange exhibit lower greenschist facies mineral assemblages, indicating that they were not deeply subducted. We obtained detrital zircon U-Pb geochronologic and sandstone petrographic data from sandstone blocks in the mélange and sandstone beds from Tethyan Himalayan strata exposed to the south of the suture. The sandstones from both units are all similar in U-Pb detrital zircon age spectra and petrography to the nearby Tethyan Cretaceous–Paleocene Sangdanlin section, which records the earliest appearance (at ~59Ma) of arc-affinity strata deposited conformably on Indian-affinity strata. Two Paleocene sandstones, one of which is a schistose block incorporated in the siliciclastic matrix mélange, yielded indistinguishable maximum depositional ages of ~59Ma. Mesozoic Asian-affinity sandstone blocks previously documented in the siliciclastic matrix mélange 200–500km along strike to the east are notably absent in the Lopu Range region. We documented a gradational transition in structural style from the block-in-matrix mélange in the northeast to the south-vergent Tethyan thrust belt in the southwest. Blocks of Tethyan Himalayan strata increase in size and the volumetric proportion of matrix decreases from northeast to southwest. We conclude that no arc-affinity sandstone blocks were incorporated into the subduction complex until India-Asia collision at ~59Ma when the Xigaze forearc basin became overfilled and Tethyan Himalayan strata entered the trench. As collision progressed, there was a gradual transition in structural style from block-in-matrix mélange formation to imbricate-style thrust belt formation.

Basin Analysis of the Albian–Santonian Xigaze Forearc, Lazi Region, South-Central Tibet

Abstract The Xigaze forearc basin records the evolution of the southern Lhasa terrane convergent margin, largely affected by Neo-Tethyan subduction processes, prior to the Paleocene Tethyan Himalaya–Eurasia collision. New geologic mapping and U-Pb detrital-zircon geochronologic data from the Lazi region, 340 km southeast of Lhasa, show that forearc basin sedimentation began ca. 110 Ma conformably atop the Yarlung–Tsangpo ophiolitic melange. By this time, the arc–trench system along the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane (Eurasia) consisted of an accretionary complex, overlying ophiolitic melange, the Xigaze forearc basin, and the Gangdese magmatic arc. There is no geological evidence in the Lazi region for more than one subduction zone between the southern Lhasa terrane margin and India. Sedimentological facies analysis from Albian to Santonian clastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks preserved in the Xigaze forearc basin indicate deep-marine sedimentation characterized by hemipelagic carbonate and volcanogenic sediment-gravity-flow deposits. Sandstone modal petrographic and U-Pb detrital-zircon geochronologic data reveal Asian continental margin, Gangdese magmatic arc, and central to northern Lhasa terrane provenance. During this time, basin fill was deposited in cycles of high and low sediment flux characterized by alternating successions of clastic turbidite inner- to outer-fan deposits and hemipelagic limestone and marlstone sequences. Along-strike differences in the timing of initial forearc basin sedimentation are likely the result of intra-basin topography and/or diachronous development of ophiolitic forearc basement.

Methane-derived authigenic carbonates of mid-Cretaceous age in southern Tibet: Types of carbonate concretions, carbon sources, and formation processes

Methane-derived authigenic carbonates with distinctive structures and morphologies have been documented worldwide, but they are rarely found from ancient strata in the Eastern Tethys Ocean. The methane-derived authigenic carbonates found in southern Tibet are developed in calcareous or silty shales of mid-Cretaceous age in the Xigaze forearc basin and in the Tethyan Himalaya tectonic zone. The morphology, mineralogy, elemental geochemistry and composition of carbon and oxygen isotopes of these carbonates are studied in detail.The carbonates have nodular, tubular, and tabular morphologies. They are primarily composed of carbonate cement that binds and partly replaces host sediment grains; host siliciclastic sediments are composed mainly of quartz and plagioclase feldspar; a few foraminifers; and framboidal or subhedral to euhedral pyrite. Carbonate cements dominantly are micritic calcite, with minor contribution of dolomite.Nodular concretions are characterized by depleted δ13C values, commonly ranging from −30‰ to −5‰. The δ13C values show a gradual decrease from the periphery to the center, and the CaO, SiO2, Fe2O3, Al2O3, K2O, and TiO2 contents generally show a gradual change. These features indicate that the nodular concretions grew from an early-formed center toward the periphery, and that the carbon source of the nodular concretions was derived from a mixture of methane, methanogenic CO2, and seawater-dissolved inorganic carbon.The tubular concretions are characterized by δ13C values of −8.85‰ to −3.47‰ in the Shangba Section, and −27.37‰ to −23.85‰ in the upper Gamba Section. Unlike the nodular concretions, the tubular concretions show central conduits, which are possible pathways of methane-rich fluids, suggesting that the cementation of tubular concretions begins at the periphery and proceeds inward. Moreover, the tubular concretions show morphological similarity with the methane-derived carbonate chimneys, pipes and slabs reported in present-day cold seep settings. We suggest that the carbon source of the tubular concretions was derived from a mixture of seawater-dissolved inorganic carbon and oxidized methane formed by released hydrate.The tabular concretions are characterized by δ13C values of −21.87‰ to −6.67‰ in the Xiege Sections. These depleted δ13C values suggest that the carbon of the tabular concretions was derived at least in part, from AOM. The tabular concretions are characterized by δ13C values of −28.81‰ to −12.99‰ in the Gamba Section. According to the δ13C values and field observation, we infer that their carbon source was more likely to be a mixture of the oxidized methane formed by released hydrate and seawater-dissolved inorganic carbon.

Constraining the age of Liuqu Conglomerate, southern Tibet: Implications for evolution of the India–Asia collision zone

Controversy over the depositional age and provenance of the Liuqu Conglomerate along the major structural Indus–Yarlung suture zone in South Tibet clouds our understanding of the process of the India/Asia collision. Here, we report low-temperature thermochronometric data (apatite fission track, apatite and zircon (U–Th)/He for the Liuqu Conglomerate in the Xigaze area). Our new data constrain its depositional age to latest Oligocene–Early Miocene time, indicating that rather than having formed immediately following Paleogene India–Asia collision or collision between India and an intra-oceanic arc as previously proposed, the Conglomerate was probably deposited in an intermontane basin, at a slightly later time than the Gangrinboche Group to the north. The Liuqu Conglomerate should therefore not be used as a key horizon in models constraining the early stages of India/Asia collision. Our data together with previous studies suggest that the Liuqu Conglomerate was sourced from the Xigaze forearc basin, Indus–Yarlung suture zone, as well as the Tethyan Himalaya. Furthermore, our data indicate that exhumation of the Liuqu Conglomerate commenced at ∼<10–12 Ma, suggesting significant erosion in the Indus–Yarlung suture zone attributable to incision of the Yarlung Zangbo in Mid to Late Miocene time.

The evolution of Yarlung Tsangpo River: Constraints from the age and provenance of the Gangdese Conglomerates, southern Tibet

Cenozoic conglomerates are exposed discontinuously along the length of the Yarlung Tsangpo suture zone on the southern margin of the Gangdese arc. These conglomerates (the “Gangdese Conglomerates” herein) record a crucial stage in the uplift and erosion histories of the southern Tibet after the initial India–Asia collision. In the Mt. Kailas area, the Gangdese Conglomerates strata consist of multiple sedimentary cycles and each cycle is a fining-upward sequence that was deposited by alluvial fan, braided-river and delta systems. Whereas in the Xigaze area, the Gangdese Conglomerates strata comprise a coarsening-upward sequence that was deposited by delta, braided-river and alluvial fan systems. Based on the detrital and igneous zircon U–Pb ages, the depositional ages of the Gangdese Conglomerates are late Oligocene to early Pliocene (ca. 26–5Ma) in the Mt. Kailas area, late Oligocene to middle Miocene (ca. 26–15Ma) in the Xigaze area, and late Oligocene to early Miocene (ca. 26–19Ma) in the Zedong area. Paleocurrent measurements and provenance data (i.e., conglomerate clast composition, sandstone petrology and detrital zircon age) indicate that the initial detritus of the Gangdese Conglomerates were entirely derived from the north (mainly from the Gangdese arc). Sediment resulting from denudation to the south (the Xigaze forearc basin, the Yarlung Tsangpo suture zone and the northern margin of the Indian plate) first appeared by the early Miocene (ca. 19Ma) and subsequently increased in abundance gradually. Our new results, together with previous data from the Xigaze area, reveal 3 major stages in the evolution of the Yarlung Tsangpo River system: (1) the southward-flowing stage (ca. 26–19Ma) featured southward-draining transverse rivers that transported materials from the Gangdese arc southward. Southward paleocurrents in the Gangdese Conglomerates indicate a northern source. (2) The westward-flowing stage (ca. 19–15Ma) developed due to the uplift of the suture zone and Tethys Himalaya to the south. Northward-draining rivers began to develop, and lakes resembling a string of beads formed and finally connected together, initiating the westward-flowing paleo-Yarlung Tsangpo River. Westward paleoflows were recorded in the Gangdese Conglomerates. (3) The eastward-flowing stage (ca. 15Ma–present) resulted from differential uplift and denudation of the southern Tibet, which reversed the direction of the young Yarlung Tsangpo River by ca. 15Ma. The deposition of the Gangdese Conglomerates was controlled by eastward paleoflows. At this point, the modern eastward-flowing Yarlung Tsangpo River system was established.

New insights into the timing of the India–Asia collision from the Paleogene Quxia and Jialazi formations of the Xigaze forearc basin, South Tibet

The Xigaze forearc basin provides information on subduction evolution and magmatic growth of the Gangdese arc as well as on the India–Asia continental collision. Recently obtained sedimentological, biostratigraphic, petrographic, geochemical and geochronological data on Cretaceous to Paleogene strata in the Cuojiangding area (Zhongba county, south Tibet) shed new light on the tectonic evolution of the southern margin of the Lhasa Block during closure of Neotethys and initial collision with India. The uppermost Cretaceous Padana and Qubeiya formations, deposited in deltaic to inner shelf environments, and representing the final filling of the Xigaze forearc basin, were unconformably overlain by the Quxia and Jialazi formations, deposited in fan-delta environments during the Paleocene/earliest Eocene. Petrographic data and U–Pb ages of detrital zircons document the progressive unroofing of the Gangdese arc, which remained the dominant source of detritus throughout the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene. Detrital Cr-spinels in the Quxia and Jialazi formations are geochemically similar to those in Cretaceous Xigaze forearc strata but different from those hosted in Yarlung Zangbo ophiolites, suggesting that the latter were not exposed to erosion in the considered time window. Sandstone petrography, Cr-spinel-geochemistry, U–Pb age spectra and Hf isotopic ratios of detrital zircons in the Quxia and Jialazi formations match those in Paleogene sediments deposited on the distal (Sangdanlin and Zheya formations) and proximal Indian margin (Enba and Zhaguo formations), suggesting that the Quxia and Jialazi formations documents syncollisional fan-deltas deposited on top of the nascent Himalayan orogenic belt. In this scenario, the onset of the India–Asia collision predates deposition of the Quxia and Jialazi formations and is thus constrained as younger than 66Ma and older than 58Ma.

Multi-stage volcanic activities and geodynamic evolution of the Lhasa terrane during the Cretaceous: Insights from the Xigaze forearc basin

The history of volcanic activity of the Gangdese arc in southern Tibet during the Cretaceous remains poorly known due to the intense erosion of the arc. Here we present zircon U–Pb ages, trace element and Hf isotopic data of tuffs and volcanic conglomerates from the Chongdoi and the Ngamring Formation in the Xigaze forearc basin. Three tuff samples from the Chongdoi Formation yield zircon U–Pb ages around 112Ma. Such ages could be taken as their depositional ages, indicating that detrital clasts of the Chongdoi Formation were deposited at that time. One andesitic conglomerate sample from the Ngamring Formation was dated at ca. 105Ma, the other rhyolitic conglomerate sample and one tuff sample were dated to be ca. 95Ma and 91Ma, respectively, suggesting that this formation was formed during the late Albian–late Turonian. All zircons illustrate I-type granitoid characteristics and possess low Ti-in-zircon temperatures (<800°C). Zircon εHf(t) values of tuffs from the Chongdoi Formation define two groups: (1) the first group of 117–110Ma displays large positive εHf(t) values (+12.1 to +17.1), larger than those of the tuff from the Ngamring Formation (+6.0 to +10.2); (2) the second group of 119–111Ma yields negative to small positive εHf(t) values (−4.5 to +1.1). All above observations indicate that their host rocks were derived from the juvenile materials with significant input of fluids. Combined with extant data, the first group and the tuff, volcanic conglomerates from the Ngamring Formation are mostly likely derived from the eroded Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the Gangdese arc, while the second group is likely sourced from the late Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the central Lhasa terrane. Our data confirm the presence of Cretaceous volcanism in the Gangdese arc, suggesting that the Neo-Tethyan Ocean lithosphere was most likely subducted northerly in a normal angle rather than in a manner of low-angle subduction.

Late Cretaceous to early Paleogene foraminiferal biozones in the Tibetan Himalayas, and a pan-Tethyan foraminiferal correlation scheme

This investigation of Upper Cretaceous and lower Paleogene sediments from the Tibetan Himalayas, based on three stratigraphic sections from the southern margin of Asian Plate and nine sections from the northern Indian Plate margin, provides the first high resolution biostratigraphic description of the region. The sedimentary successions from these two plate margins evolved during the following depositional stages, which we here divide into eleven new biozones (TLK2-3 and TP1-9); (i) an outer neritic stage from the Coniacian to the Maastrichtian, dominated by keeled planktonic foraminifera (PF), such as Globotruncana (TLK2); (ii) a latest Maastrichtian forereef assemblage dominated by Lepidorbitoides, Omphalocyclus and Orbitoides (TLK3); (iii) an early Paleocene, intermittently occurring backreef/shallow reefal warm environment with benthic assemblages dominated by small miliolids and rotaliids, such as Daviesina and Lockhartia (TP1-2); (iv) a late Paleocene-early Eocene, shallow reefal environment dominated by warm water forms, such as Alveolina, Assilina and Nummulites (TP3-7); (v) a depositional stage showing a slight deepening of the reef, with forereef assemblages, lasting until the end of the Ypresian (TP8); (vi) a final, early Lutetian depositional stage characterised by the complete disappearance of the larger benthic foraminifera (LBF) and their reefal environment, which was replaced by PF assemblages with intense reworking of pelagic facies triggered by the tectonics of the India-Asia collision (TP9). During the course of this study two unnamed species have been identified and described, Lepidorbitoides sp. A and Discocyclina sp. A, from the Xigaze forearc basin. The high resolution depositional and biostratigraphic scheme defined here for the southern Himalayan region gives greater insight into the general evolution of this globally important tectonic region.We have confirmed earlier observations that many LBF forms appear about 1Ma later in the eastern part of Tethys than they do in the west, reflecting their previously inferred gradual eastern paleogeographic migration. Additionally, this study has allowed us to refine the biostratigraphic ranges of some LBF of the Eastern Tethys, and for the first time to exactly correlate these Eastern Tethyan zones with the Shallow Benthic Zones (SBZs) of the Western Tethys.

Provenance of the Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary Sedimentary Relicts in the Renbu Mélange Zone, within the Indus-Yarlung Suture Zone

AbstractThe Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary sediments in the Indus-Yarlung suture zone provide critical records on the history of accretion along the southern margin of Asia prior to, and during, the India-Asia collision. In this article, we report field and petrographic observations, in situ detrital zircon U-Pb ages, Lu-Hf isotopic analyses, and Cr-spinel electron microprobe data from the Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Renbu melange zone in east Xigaze, southern Tibet. The Renbu melange zone consists of two serpentinite melange subzones separated by a mud-matrix melange. Using similarities found in the compositions of detrital Cr-spinels and detrital zircon U-Pb ages, we propose to correlate the northern Renbu melange subzone with the upper part of the Xigaze forearc basin. Detrital zircons from sandstones in the southern Renbu melange subzone indicate an influx of Cretaceous–early Cenozoic zircon grains with juvenile Hf isotopic compositions, suggesting a provenance from...

Sedimentology, provenance and geochronology of the upper Cretaceous–lower Eocene western Xigaze forearc basin, southern Tibet

AbstractLocated on the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane in southern Tibet, the Xigaze forearc basin records Cretaceous to lower Eocene sedimentation along the southern margin of Asia, prior to and during the initial stages of continental collision with the Tethyan Himalaya in the Early Eocene. We present new measured stratigraphic sections, totalling 4.5 km stratigraphic thickness, from a 60 km E–W segment of the western portion of the Xigaze forearc basin, northeast of the Lopu Kangri Range (29.8007° N, 84.91827° E). In addition, we apply U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology to constrain the provenance and maximum depositional ages of investigated strata. Stratigraphic ages range between ca. 88 and ca. 54 Ma and sedimentary facies indicate a shoaling‐upward trend from deep‐marine turbidites to fluvial deposits. Depositional environments of coeval Cretaceous strata along strike include deep‐marine distal turbidites, slope‐apron debris‐flow deposits and marginal marine carbonates. This along‐strike variability in facies suggests an irregular paleogeography of the Asian margin prior to collision. Paleocene–Eocene strata are composed of shallow marine carbonates with abundant foraminifera such as Nummulites‐Discocyclina and Miscellanea‐Daviesina and transition into fluvial deposits dated at ca. 54 Ma. Sandstone modal analyses, conglomerate clast compositions and detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology indicate that forearc detritus in this region was derived solely from the Gangdese magmatic arc to the north. In addition, U–Pb detrital zircon age spectra within the upper Xigaze forearc stratigraphy are similar to those from Eocene foreland basin strata south of the Indus‐Yarlung suture near Sangdanlin, suggesting that the Xigaze forearc was a possible source of Sangdanlin detritus by ca. 55 Ma. We propose a model in which the Xigaze forearc prograded south over the accretionary prism and onto the advancing Tethyan Himalayan passive margin between 58 and 54 Ma, during late stage evolution of the forearc basin and the beginning of collision with the Tethyan Himalaya. The lack of documented forearc strata younger than ca. 51 Ma suggests that sedimentation in the forearc basin ceased at this time owing to uplift resulting from continued continental collision.

Xigaze forearc basin revisited (South Tibet): Provenance changes and origin of the Xigaze Ophiolite

Our new stratigraphic, sedimentological, and micropaleontological analysis, integrated with basalt geochemistry, sandstone petrography, and detrital-zircon U-Pb and Hf isotope data, suggests the revision of current models for the geological evolution of the Asian active margin during the Cretaceous. The Xigaze forearc basin began to form in the late Early Cretaceous, south of the Gangdese arc, during the initial subduction of the Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere under the Lhasa terrane. Well-preserved stratigraphic successions document the classical upwardshallowing pattern of the forearc-basin strata and elucidate the origin of the associated oceanic magmatic rocks. The normal midocean-ridge basalt (N-MORB) geochemical signature and stratigraphic contact with the overlying abyssal cherts (Chongdui Formation) indicate that the Xigaze Ophiolite formed by forearc spreading and represents the basement of the forearc sedimentary sequence. Volcaniclastic sedimentation began with thick turbiditic sandstones and interbedded shales in the late Albian–Santonian (Ngamring Formation) followed by shelfal, deltaic, and fl uvial strata (Padana Formation), with fi nal fi lling of the basin by the Campanian age. Forearc sandstones do not show the classical trend from feldspatholithic volcaniclastic to quartzo-feldspathic plutoniclastic compositions, indicating limited unroofi ng of the Gangdese arc prior to collision. U-Pb age spectra of detrital zircons are unimodal with a 107 Ma peak in the lower Ngamring Formation (104–99 Ma), bimodal with a subordinate additional peak at 157 Ma in the middle Ngamring Formation (99– 88 Ma), and multimodal with more abundant pre-Mesozoic ages in the upper Ngamring and Padana Formations (88–76 Ma). These three petrofacies with distinct provenances document the progressive erosional evolution of the Gangdese arc, with uplift of the central Lhasa terrane and expanding river catchments to include the central Lhasa terrane during the Late Cretaceous.

Himalayan detrital chromian spinels and timing of Indus-Yarlung ophiolite erosion

The geochemistry of detrital chromian spinels is commonly used to discriminate provenance from different tectonic settings of mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks. Detrital spinels in Cenozoic foreland-basin successions fed from the Himalaya Orogen were assertively interpreted as sourced from the ophiolitic rocks of the Indus-Yarlung suture zone. This study compares the geochemistry of detrital Cr-spinels from the Tethys Himalaya passive margin and Cretaceous Xigaze forearc successions with those from the Indus-Yarlung ophiolites. Cr-spinels in the Indus-Yarlung ophiolites have low TiO2 (mostly < 0.2%) and high Al2O3 (10–48%). Detrital Cr-spinels from the Tethyan Himalaya have instead high TiO2 (mostly > 0.2%) and low Al2O3 (mainly 6–23%), indicating a rift-related basaltic origin. Detrital Cr-spinels from the Xigaze forearc basin have either low TiO2 (mostly < 0.2%) and low Al2O3 (4–34%), suggesting provenance from a supra-subduction-zone peridotite, or high TiO2 (> 1.0%), indicating intra-plate basaltic origin. Compositional fingerprints of detrital Cr-spinels from Lower Eocene foreland-basin strata in the central-eastern Himalaya indicate provenance from the Lhasa Block without input from the Indus-Yarlung ophiolites. Only Cr-spinels from the Lower Eocene foreland-basin strata in the north-western Himalaya and the Upper Eocene–Lower Miocene remnant-ocean turbidites of the Bengal basin are mostly ophiolite-derived. The Indus-Yarlung ophiolites were thus emplaced and exposed to erosion since the Early Eocene (> 50 Ma) in the NW Himalaya, but only subsequently (50–38 Ma) in the eastern Himalaya.

Rapid forearc spreading between 130 and 120 Ma: Evidence from geochronology and geochemistry of the Xigaze ophiolite, southern Tibet

The Cretaceous Xigaze ophiolite is best exposed at the central Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ, Tibet) which also includes the Gangdese arc and the Xigaze forearc basin. This study reports new geochronological and geochemical data for this ophiolite to revisit its geodynamic and petrogenetic evolution. The Xigaze peridotites have low CaO and Al2O3 contents and U-shaped Rare Earth Element (REE) patterns, suggesting that they are residues after moderate to high degrees of partial melting and were modified by infiltration of Light Rare Earth Element (LREE)-enriched boninitic melts. The Xigaze crustal rocks belong to two groups: Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB)-like rocks and boninitic rocks showing a uniform LREE depletion and flat to LREE enrichment on chondrite-normalized patterns, respectively. Geochemically, both groups show the influence of subducting oceanic slab-derived fluids. LA-ICPMS zircon U–Pb and Lu–Hf analyses from dolerite and quartz diorite dikes, which intruded into the mantle peridotite, and dolerite sheeted sills show that they were generated between 127 and 124Ma. The zircons possess positive εHf(t) values ranging from +7.5 to +17.3. Taking into account the geological and geochronological characteristics of the central-western YZSZ, we propose that ophiolites in this region formed in a forearc spreading setting through rapid slab rollback during subduction initiation between 130 and 120Ma. Following this stage of spreading, the forearc was stabilized and the zone of melting migrated beneath the Gangdese arc producing the voluminous Late Cretaceous granitoids displaying depleted mantle-type Hf isotopic compositions. Our model provides a new explanation for the generation and evolution of forearc-type ophiolites.

India-Asia collision was at 24°N and 50 Ma: palaeomagnetic proof from southernmost Asia

How and when India collided with Asia is crucial for global climate and continental dynamics. We present new palaeomagnetic data showing that the Xigaze forearc basin of southern Tibet was located at 24.2±5.9°N during 54–57 Ma, providing a direct constraint on the position of the southernmost margin of Asia at this crucial stage. Our study suggests 1) the age and locus of the initial India-Asia collision are at ~50 Ma and ~24°N, respectively; 2) Tibet resisted India's northward push during the first ~16 Ma of initial impact from the collision and experienced little latitudinal displacement; and 3) Sometime a little after 34 Ma, Greater India was consumed and thicker Indian Craton subsequently made contact with Asia, resulting in ~6° northward drift of Asia. Our model has implications for the process by which the high proto-Tibetan plateau formed and for the two slowdowns of India's convergence rate with Asia.

First discovery and characterizations of late Cretaceous seep carbonates from Xigaze in Tibet, China

Hydrocarbon seeps, widely occurring in continental margins, have become increasingly focused owing to their close relationships with gas hydrates, strong greenhouse gas methane, and biological resources in extreme environments. Ancient hydrocarbon seeps have already been recognized from Devonian to Quaternary strata worldwide based on seep carbonates or seep-related fossil chemosynthetic assemblages. However, seep-related deposits are rarely found from ancient strata in the mainland China. Here, we report the first discovery of an ancient seep deposit, specifically late Cretaceous seep carbonates from Xigaze in Tibet, China. Xigaze seep carbonates, occurring as nodules, are enclosed in upper Cretaceous turbidite strata in Xigaze forearc basin. These carbonates are composed of authigenic carbonate (56.2% on average), clastic quartz and feldspar (27.3% on average), and clay minerals (chlorite, illite and smectite, 16.5% on average). Clotted micrites, peloids and framboid pyrites are frequently observed, all of which are common in modern seep carbonates. The carbonates have negative δ 13C values varying from −27.7‰ to −4.0‰(V-PDB), suggesting that thermogenic methane is the primary carbon source. Ce/Ce* values revised by eliminating La effects show no real Ce anomaly, indicating the carbonates were primarily precipitated in a weak reducing environment. Overall, these features provide unequivocal evidences that the seafloor of Xigaze forearc basin developed hydrocarbon seeps in late Cretaceous.

Revision of the Cretaceous–Paleogene stratigraphic framework, facies architecture and provenance of the Xigaze forearc basin along the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone

New field investigation, structural analysis, review of biostratigraphy, stratigraphic framework, facies architecture, provenance, and flow direction of the Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary strata in southern Tibet resulted in reinterpretation of the evolution of the Xigaze forearc basin (XFB). The XFB is comprised by flysch-dominant Xigaze Group (consisting of Ngamring, Chongdoi, and Sangzugang Formations) and of the shallow marine Cuojiangding Group (Padana, Qubeiya, Quxia, and Gyalaze Formations), with their ages herein revised as the Albian–Coniacian and the Santonian–Ypresian respectively. The deep-sea flysch represented by the Ngamring Formation constitutes the early sedimentary fill of the XFB. It was subdivided into five megasequences MS1–MS5 in order: the early submarine fan facies stage, channel submarine fan stage, the mature submarine fan stage, the highstand submarine fan stage, and outer fan-pelagic stage. The paleocurrent flows were eastwards and westwards during the early and late stages of basin development and northwards and southwards during its middle stage, indicating typical forearc basin sedimentation with longitudinal supply and lateral filling. Provenance studies point to multiple sources, with andesitic debris sourced from the Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous Yeba Formation and Sangri Group formed in the volcanic island arc chains in the southern Gangdese. The four periods of the XFB development are: 1) the formation of the XFB basement by the Xigaze ophiolite, and completed before the Aptian. The coeval deposits on the shelf are the Sangzugang Formation carbonate; 2) the earliest XFB deposits of the earliest Aptian age (ca. 125/120Ma) represented by the Chongdoi Formation, related to the residual forearc; 3) composite forearc developed, represented by the late Albian–late Cenomanian flysch megasequences (MS1–MS2) and the Turonian–Coniacian flysch megasequences (MS3–MS5), respectively; and 4) the final stage of the XFB development started the terminal forearc stage represented by the late Late Cretaceous–Early Paleogene shallow marine Cuojiangding Group and terminated during middle Ypresian, when the Gyalaze Formation was deposited.

Provenance of the Liuqu Conglomerate in southern Tibet: A Paleogene erosional record of the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen

The Liuqu Conglomerate, exposed along the Yarlung-Zangbo suture zone in southern Tibet, has been interpreted as a Paleogene molasse deposited during India–Asia collision or the product of collision between India and an intra-oceanic arc. Detailed petrographic studies and analyses of U–Pb and Hf isotopes of detrital zircon indicate multiple sources for the conglomerate, including the sedimentary succession within the Xigaze forearc basin to the north of the suture, the Yarlung-Zangbo ophiolite within the suture itself, and the Langjiexue Group and Tethyan Himalayan sedimentary rocks to the south of the suture. The occurrence of clasts of both Indian and Asian origin suggests that the conglomerate was deposited after India–Asia collision. The present data suggest that the onset of Himalayan–Tibetan orogenic erosion occurred as early as the Middle Eocene, when the Yarlung-Zangbo suture zone and Xigaze forearc succession were uplifted and became sources for the Liuqu Conglomerate. Thus, the results are inconsistent with the proposal that the provenance and age of the Liuqu Conglomerate support the hypothesis that India–Asia collision did not occur until the Oligocene. It is further suggested that Eocene Neotethyan slab breakoff, which may result in accelerated exhumation and uplift of the orogen, provided a deep-level dynamic control on the deposition of the Liuqu Conglomerate.

Detrital zircon U–Pb and Hf isotopic data from the Xigaze fore-arc basin: Constraints on Transhimalayan magmatic evolution in southern Tibet

Before the continental collision of India with Asia, northward subduction of the Tethyan oceanic lithosphere beneath South Asia resulted in widespread arc magmatism in the Lhasa terrane of southern Tibet from Early Jurassic to Eocene time. The detailed magmatic history of this Transhimalayan arc system, however, remains unclear. Here we report in- situ detrital zircon U–Pb and Hf isotopic analyses of sedimentary rocks from the Xigaze fore-arc basin, which developed along the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane. The zircon U–Pb results allow us to better constrain the depositional age of the Xigaze Group, which consists from bottom to top of the Chongdui, Ngamring, Padana and Qubeiya formations deposited between ca. 116 and 65 Ma, with the main stage (i.e., the Ngamring Formation) being deposited between ca. 107 and 84 Ma. The majority of these zircons are characterized by high 176Hf/ 177Hf isotopic ratios and positive ε Hf( t) values that are similar to those of magmatic zircons from the Gangdese batholith, suggesting the latter was a predominant source provenance of the fore-arc sediments. In the younger sequences, i.e., the upper Ngamring and Padana/Qubeiya formations, zircons that record either pre-Mesozoic U–Pb ages or negative ε Hf( t) values become more abundant, implying additional sources from the northern Lhasa and/or Qiangtang terranes due to northward development of the fluvial systems. The overall zircon U–Pb and Hf isotopic data furthermore suggest that during fore-arc deposition, the exposed Gangdese arc was dominated by igneous rocks formed between 130 and 80 Ma, associated with lesser amounts zircon with ages between 190 and 150 Ma, thus recording two important stages of arc magmatism that are only sporadically preserved in modern outcrops as a result of extensive erosion related to uplift during Mesozoic–Cenozoic time.