X-ray Spot Size Research Articles

A compact approach to higher-resolution resonant inelastic x-ray scattering detection using photoelectrons

The detection of inelastically scattered soft x-rays with high energy resolution usually requires large grating spectrometers. Recently, photoelectron spectrometry for analysis of x-rays (PAX) has been rediscovered for modern spectroscopy experiments at synchrotron light sources. By converting scattered photons to electrons and using an electron energy analyser, the energy resolution for resonant inelastic x-ray scattering (RIXS) becomes decoupled from the x-ray spot size and instrument length. In this work, we develop PAX towards high energy resolution using a modern photoemission spectroscopy setup studying Ba2Cu3O4Cl2 at the Cu L 3-edge. We measure a momentum transfer range of 24% of the first Brillouin zone simultaneously. Our results hint at the observation of a magnon excitation below 100 meV energy transfer and show intensity variations related to the dispersion of dd-excitations. With dedicated setups, PAX can complement the best and largest RIXS instruments, while at the same time opening new opportunities to acquire RIXS at a range of momentum transfers simultaneously and combine it with angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy in a single instrument.

Nanoscale Three-Dimensional Imaging of Integrated Circuits Using a Scanning Electron Microscope and Transition-Edge Sensor Spectrometer.

X-ray nanotomography is a powerful tool for the characterization of nanoscale materials and structures, but it is difficult to implement due to the competing requirements of X-ray flux and spot size. Due to this constraint, state-of-the-art nanotomography is predominantly performed at large synchrotron facilities. We present a laboratory-scale nanotomography instrument that achieves nanoscale spatial resolution while addressing the limitations of conventional tomography tools. The instrument combines the electron beam of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with the precise, broadband X-ray detection of a superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) microcalorimeter. The electron beam generates a highly focused X-ray spot on a metal target held micrometers away from the sample of interest, while the TES spectrometer isolates target photons with a high signal-to-noise ratio. This combination of a focused X-ray spot, energy-resolved X-ray detection, and unique system geometry enables nanoscale, element-specific X-ray imaging in a compact footprint. The proof of concept for this approach to X-ray nanotomography is demonstrated by imaging 160 nm features in three dimensions in six layers of a Cu-SiO2 integrated circuit, and a path toward finer resolution and enhanced imaging capabilities is discussed.

Pulsed radiation image restoration based on unsupervised deep learning

The process of pulsed X-ray imaging generates noise and blurring that significantly degrade image quality, lead to loss of image information, and interfere with accurate diagnosis of X-ray spot size and objects. Traditional radiation image restoration methods lack flexibility and generalization. Furthermore, neural network methods based on supervised learning require many actual image data sets to be obtained in advance, which limits network training. In this paper, we propose an unsupervised radiation image restoration method based on a deep image prior. The classical DeepRED framework is extended by adding weight-adaptive variational regularization. Automatic strategies are employed to estimate local regularization parameters, resulting in better noise removal and preservation of image edges and texture structures. The proposed method is evaluated through numerical simulations and experimental studies of X-ray source images and flash radiographic images. The results indicate that the proposed method is effective in restoring pulsed radiation images, removing noise, and preserving boundary region information. Additionally, this method produces satisfactory results for the restoration of real neutron images, demonstrating its applicability in the field of radiation imaging.

Preparation and characterization of conductive blends of polyaniline with polyphenol red

Polymers are widely employed in biomedical applications, pharmaceutical product formulation, and drug delivery systems. Since every polymer has its own distinct properties, polymer blends will have novel chemical and physical properties. Functionally, the purpose of blending polymers is to improve, customize, or maximize material performance. In this study, polyaniline and polyphenol red polymer mixtures were prepared electrochemically and characterized with XPS imaging and SEM whether their distribution was homogeneous. The mixture of aniline and phenol red was deposited glassy carbon electrode (GCE) surface using the cyclic voltammetry technique in the potential range of -0.80 V to 2.00 V with 50 mV/s scan rate for 25 cycles. The phase separation of the two polymers was demonstrated by a combination of spectroscopic imaging and microscopy. For this purpose, the X-ray spot size and step number were set to 50μm. 1 x 1 mm2 area scan of the polymer mixtures was performed, and spectra were obtained at each pixel in an array of 20 x 20 pixels. Chemical imaging was obtained by applying Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to collected XPS survey spectra. For the morphological characterization, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed, and images were obtained at magnifications of 5000 x. The results obtained in the mixtures prepared with 5%, 10% and 25% were better compared to the mixture prepared with 50% polyphenol red. Since the X-ray spot size is limited, the desired image resolution could not be obtained. It was shown that XPS imaging studies could also be used for examining the distribution of different and unknown polymer mixtures together with SEM.

Micro X-ray fluorescence device based on monocapillary ellipsoidal lens for thin film thickness measurement

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is a crucial non-destructive technique for determining the thickness of thin films or coating materials to ensure their optimal performance. In order to further expand the application of XRF in thin film thickness analysis, we have developed an inner-wall coated elliptical monocapillary X-ray lens (EMXRL), which has a larger acceptance angle and higher utilization efficiency for light sources compared to traditional inner-wall uncoated EMXRL. In addition, we have built a laboratory micro-X-ray fluorescence (Micro-XRF) thickness measurement device based on coated EMXRL. Compared to common XRF devices, it has a smaller X-ray spot size and higher intensity gain, resulting in smaller spatial resolution and higher detection efficiency in XRF thickness measurement applications. We established a standard curve in the range from 0.85μm to 56.5μm for measuring the thickness of Cu coating on silicon using this Micro-XRF device. The experimental results show that the micro-area thickness measurement device, based on the standard curve method, can measure the thickness of Cu coatings from 0.85μm to about 30.00μm with a relative deviation of about 3%. Within the thickness range from about 30.0μm to 56.5μm, the relative deviation of the measured thickness increased and was larger than 5%. This larger relative deviation mainly resulted from the greater absorption from the thicker coating. Furthermore, We used the device to perform mapping scans on scratched areas of Cu-plated circuit board to verify its usefulness. The results show that the device has the advantages of simplicity and speed, and has potential applications in fields such as semiconductors.

UV-enhanced environmental charge compensation in near ambient pressure XPS

In this work, we discuss the possibility of improving charge neutralization in near ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy by co-irradiating the sample with He I photons of 21.2 eV. This UV-enhanced neutralization of charges is a variation of the so-called environmental charge compensation, which uses the electrons produced by the photoionization of the ambient gas to neutralize the positive charges built at the sample surface. Adding an additional ionization source generates more charges at the sample but also larger amounts of electrons available for neutralization. The final surface charge equilibrium depends on different aspects of the experiment, such as the sample composition and geometry, the total ionization cross sections of the gas compared to the surface materials, the gas used, the luminosity and spot size of the sources used for photoionization, and the energy of the electrons present in the gas phase. Here we illustrate the efficiency of the UV-enhanced neutralization using three different dielectric samples with different geometries (a porous SiO2 monolith with an irregular surface, a flat mica sample, and a thin SiO2 film deposited onto a Si substrate), different X-ray spot sizes, and two different gases (N2 and Ar). The effect of biasing on the efficiency of the sample surface to attract electrons produced in the gas phase is also discussed.

Microfluidic liquid sheets as large-area targets for high repetition XFELs.

The high intensity of X-ray free electron lasers (XFELs) can damage solution-phase samples on every scale, ranging from the molecular or electronic structure of a sample to the macroscopic structure of a liquid microjet. By using a large surface area liquid sheet microjet as a sample target instead of a standard cylindrical microjet, the incident X-ray spot size can be increased such that the incident intensity falls below the damage threshold. This capability is becoming particularly important for high repetition rate XFELs, where destroying a target with each pulse would require prohibitively large volumes of sample. We present here a study of microfluidic liquid sheet dimensions as a function of liquid flow rate. Sheet lengths, widths and thickness gradients are shown for three styles of nozzles fabricated from isotropically etched glass. In-vacuum operation and sample recirculation using these nozzles is demonstrated. The effects of intense XFEL pulses on the structure of a liquid sheet are also briefly examined.

Rhodotron and rotating target: A solution towards micro-spot for high energy and high dose rate bremsstrahlung sources

High energy over MeV bremsstrahlung sources that employ normal conducting radio frequency linear accelerators have expanding applications in industrial computerized tomography (CT) for non-destructive inspection and evaluation. The X-ray spot size that mainly affects the imaging quality is yet limited by the electron beam width in the high resolution CT systems. In a short exposure time, high beam power is required to generate sufficient photons to improve the signal to noise ratio of imaging. However, with ∼kW level of average beam power these linear accelerators usually have a beam spot size over 1 mm since the temperature rising due to the beam energy deposition in the target should be far below its melting point. We propose a concept of using a Rhodotron-based accelerator to provide high power electron beams in a long duration pulse and a rotating target to mitigate the overheating issue, such that the gap between micro-spot and high dose rate can be bridged in the high energy bremsstrahlung sources. This article presents an in-depth simulation work to discuss and evaluate this scheme of X-ray source. The simulations of beam dynamics in the accelerator and bremsstrahlung process in the target predict the generated X-rays with a spot size as small as 68 μm at full-width half-maximum and a dose rate as high as 4700 cGy/min from a 9 MeV electron beam interacting with a 1 mm thickness tantalum target. Further thermal analysis in the rotating target indicates a significant improvement of beam power handling in comparison with the conventional stationary one.

Improving small animal cone beam CT resolution by mitigating x-ray focal spot induced blurring via deconvolution

Objective. Modern preclinical small animal radiation platforms utilize cone beam computerized tomography (CBCT) for image guidance and experiment planning purposes. The resolution of CBCT images is of particular importance for visualizing fine animal anatomical structures. One major cause of spatial resolution reduction is the finite size of the x-ray focal spot. In this work, we proposed a simple method to measure x-ray focal spot intensity map and a CBCT image domain deblurring model to mitigate the effect of focal spot-induced image blurring. Approach. We measured a projection image of a tungsten ball bearing using the flat panel detector of the CBCT platform. We built a forward blurring model of the projection image and derived the spot intensity map by deconvolving the measured projection image. Based on the measured spot intensity map, we derived a CBCT image domain blurring model for images reconstructed by the filtered backprojection algorithm. Based on this model, we computed image domain blurring kernel and improved the CBCT image resolution by deconvolving the CBCT image. Main results. We successfully measured the x-ray focal spot intensity map. The spot size characterized by full width at half maximum was ∼0.75 × 0.55 mm2 at 40 kVp. We computed image domain convolution kernels caused by the x-ray focal spot. A simulation study on noiseless projections was performed to evaluate the spatial resolution improvement exclusively by the focal spot kernel, and the modulation transfer function (MTF) at 50% was increased from 1.40 to 1.65 mm−1 for in-plane images and 1.05–1.32 mm−1 for cross-plane images. Experimental studies on a CT insert phantom and a plastinated mouse phantom demonstrated improved spatial resolution after image domain deconvolution, as indicated by visually improved resolution of fine structures. MTF at 50% was improved from 1.00 to 1.12 mm−1 for in-plane direction and from 0.72 to 0.84 mm−1 for cross-plane direction. Significance. The proposed method to mitigate blurring caused by finite x-ray spot size and improve CBCT image resolution is simple and effective.

Use of standard analytical tools to detect small amounts of smalt in the presence of ultramarine as observed in 15th-century Venetian illuminated manuscripts

A previous preliminary study of 15th-century Venetian manuscript fragments by the Master of the Murano Gradual identified the presence of cobalt in many ultramarine blue areas, suggesting the presence of smalt. This would represent an early use of this glassy pigment in Venetian illuminated manuscripts. Whereas sampling has been used to identify smalt in 15th century paintings, only non-invasive methods can be used on manuscripts due to their small size and fragile nature. Here we investigated four non-invasive analysis techniques to identify small amounts of smalt in the presence of ultramarine, including single-point and scanning XRF spectroscopy, UV–vis-NIR-SWIR reflectance spectroscopy (FORS), Raman spectroscopy, and external reflection FT-IR spectroscopy. This was done by studying paint mock-ups of ultramarine and smalt mixtures with and without the presence of a white pigment on parchment. The results showed molecular spectroscopy techniques (reflectance, Raman, and FTIR) require at least ~ 30–40% smalt by percent mass when in the presence of ultramarine in order to detect its presence, whereas elemental XRF spectroscopy can detect cobalt (and thus infer the presence of smalt) at the ~ 1% level. To further explore the inference of smalt by XRF, additional XRF analysis was conducted to specifically look for elements associated with cobalt minerals (i.e. nickel, arsenic, bismuth, etc.). High spatial resolution XRF scanning (60–100 μm X-ray spot size) was used to look for cobalt in smalt particles which are typically larger than those of ultramarine. These two XRF analysis approaches worked well with the mock-up paint samples, and were subsequently applied to the manuscripts for which molecular spectroscopy methods yielded no unambiguous evidence for smalt. The data underscore the challenges of conclusively identifying smalt in complex paint systems when samples are not available, but do suggest that the Master of the Murano illuminated manuscript fragments contain smalt, but perhaps not in a form or amount researchers are used to seeing in paintings.

Sulphur variations in annually layered stalagmites using benchtop micro-XRF

Variation of sulphur in annually laminated stalagmites can be used to infer the impact of past volcanic activities, anthropogenic pollution, and climate change due to increased bushfire activity. The synchrotron radiation micro-X-Ray fluorescence (SR-XRF) microprobe is a powerful tool to analyse and image sulphur recorded in stalagmites with micrometre resolution. However, access to SR-XRF beamlines can be limited, so researchers must select the most promising stalagmites for imaging. Benchtop micro-XRF is an effective tool for trace elemental analysis of speleothem samples and is a candidate for routine laboratory measurement of sulphur along stalagmite laminae and screening for SR-XRF. This study describes a protocol using matrix-matched standards to measure annual variations of sulphur at trace to percent level along the laminae of two Western Australian stalagmites, one of which already having been analysed using SR-XRF. Parameters that affected quantitation include X-ray tube voltage and current, spot size of the X-ray beam and stalagmite surface roughness and porosity. The use of a 20 μm X-ray spot size provides sub-annual spatial resolution that can be completed in an overnight scan. The features in a 1000 point micro-XRF analysis of sulphur along a 20 mm transect show good consistency with SR-XRF microprobe data. Micro-XRF mapping was also performed to produce chemical images on the stalagmite and compared with Raman and X-ray diffraction (XRD) to confirm that the stalagmite is exclusively calcite, with no aragonite, and that the source of sulphur in the samples was gypsum and anhydrite. Regions of very high sulphur in the micro-XRF maps were found to be artefacts due to diffraction of the incident beam but these could be efficiently removed by using a multiple point statistics approach to produce a clean image suitable for analysis of the laminae. This work shows the potential of micro-XRF for routine analysis of sulphur in stalagmites, and to streamline sample characterisation before SR-XRF imaging.

Multiscale measurements with adjustable x-ray spot size for in situ imaging and diffraction.

A large field of view is normally desired for synchrotron x-ray imaging, while a small x-ray spot size is required for x-ray diffraction. A multiscale measurement system with an adjustable x-ray spot size is developed to accommodate different spot size requirements for in situ phase-contrast imaging and diffraction. The centers of a diffraction scintillator with a through-hole and an imaging scintillator are collinear with the x-ray beam. With the proof-of-principle experiments on a magnesium alloy under uniaxial tension, we demonstrate the feasibility of the multiscale measurement system for full azimuthal range diffraction measurements with improved resolution and large field of view strain field measurements via x-ray digital image correlation.

Quantification and distribution of trace elements in fusion bead and pressed pellet specimens using a table top micro-X-ray fluorescence spectrometer

Pressed pelletization and fusion bead methods are two very important sample preparation techniques for X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis. Hence, along with the assessment of these two techniques with respect to its analytical capabilities, it is also very important to study the elemental homogeneity in the prepared specimens. The distribution of trace elements in the specimen prepared using pressed pelletization and fusion bead method were studied using a recently installed table top Micro-XRF (μ-XRF) spectrometer. The spectrometer is equipped with focussing polycapillary lens to obtain the X-ray spot size of 51.3 μm × 33.5 μm. An area of 4 mm × 4 mm was scanned using μ-XRF and the data obtained were used for the elemental mapping of the trace elements in those sample specimens. It was observed that the distribution of trace elements in the specimens depend on their concentration. The elements were distributed more homogeneously in bead than in pellet specimens and the homogeneity increases with the elemental concentration in both the specimens. The μ-XRF determined elemental concentrations of the trace elements in fused bead and pressed pellet specimens were in good agreement with the expected values. However for lower elemental concentration, it was observed that fused bead specimen technique is better. The fused bead technique was utilised to determine trace elemental concentration in a real soil sample.

A type of X-ray diffractometer with adaptive X-ray spot sizes

In order to realize micron scale to millimeter scale phase structure analysis, as well as accurate phase structure analysis of surface uneven samples, X-ray diffractometer named Hawk-II, which can adaptively adjust the diameter of irradiated X-ray beam spot according to the diameter of internal tangential circle at the measured point, is developed by combining X-ray diffraction technology, CCD camera imaging technology and slightly-focusing ploycapillary X-ray control technology. The X-ray source system, six-dimensional linkage motion system, CCD camera, detection system and control system based on LabVIEW are the main components of the Hawk-II. Compared with the 3°–5° divergence of the conventional X-ray source, the divergence of the X-ray emitted by the slightly-focusing polycapillary X-ray optics is only about 0.15° and also the intensity within the beam spot range is dozens of times stronger. Therefore, the shift of peak position will not appear due to the pores, curvature or uneven surface of the sample, when Hawk-II is used to analyze the samples with irregular surface. The diffraction pattern of the uneven Ren Min Bi five-cent coin are collected in the Hawk-II and PANalytical X-Pert Pro MPD conventional X-ray diffractometer respectively. By comparing the analysis results, it is found that the diffraction peaks measured by the X-Pert Pro MPD are shifted seriously, with a maximum deviation angle of 0.52°. While the diffraction peaks detected by the Hawk-II are basically consistent with the data from the standard PDF card, which verifies the advantages of the analysis of irregular samples by the Hawk-II. In order to explore the difference between different beam spots used for analysis at the same point, red and green porcelain fired in Qing dynasty and GaAs-based Cu and Fe plated films are analyzed by the Hawk-II. It is found that when the samples are relatively uniform, the intensities of diffraction peaks of different beam spots are relatively close, while when the samples are not uniform, the diffraction peaks vary greatly. Especially, some microcrystalline phases can be detected only with large beam spots. In addition, to verify the adaptive functionality of the Hawk-II, a bronze from the Western Han Dynasty, with different rust spots on it, is tested. It is found that the Hawk-II can adjust the beam spot size according to the different corrosion points, making the irradiation area coincide with the area to be analysed and the phase structure detected more accurately. Therefore, the Hawk-II is a general purpose X-ray diffractometer, which has the analytical capability from micron scale to millimeter scale and the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis function. Moreover, it has the advantages of the accurate analysis of irregular samples, fast detection speed, simple operation, etc. Based on the above analysis, the Hawk-II will be widely used in different fields.

Effects of X-rays on Perovskite Solar Cells

Synchrotron micro- and nanoprobe beamlines have demonstrated great potential to advance photovoltaic devices. Most importantly, their small X-ray spot size has enabled the direct correlation of ele...

Chemical Imaging of Human Fingermark by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS).

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a widely used technique to characterize the surface chemistry of materials. It plays a crucial role in accessing qualitative and quantitative information and in detecting the presence of chemical functional groups on the surface of any material. The forensic methods available to detect and identify elements and organic/inorganic compounds are often destructive, so evidence cannot be re-analyzed. However, XPS allows rapid analysis of samples without damaging them. Recently, an increasing number of forensic researchers have begun to study certain chemical information on fingermarks. In this study, the authors aimed to present the applicability and power of XPS imaging in fingermark analysis which can also provide specific information about the fingermark chemical composition. Herein, monochromated X-ray (Al Kα) spot size was fixed at 50 μm. XPS mapping resulted in the acquisition of spectra at each pixel, in an array of 41 × 30 pixels with a step size of 50 μm. Then, a simple discussion has been made about how the scanned surface spectrum and basic snapshot spectra are used to identify different components at a fingertip of a scanned surface area (~3 mm2 ). Hence, a fingermark pattern contaminated with caffeine, TiO2 , and Pb/PbO deposited on the silicon wafer can be chemically mapped and visualized by XPS using principal component analysis (PCA). Thus, the present study showed the possible applicability of XPS for the identification of illicit drugs of abuse, gunshot residue, and skin care products on latent fingermark by mimicking a crime scene evidence.

A passive hutch-cooling system for achieving high thermal-stability operation at the Nanoprobe beamline, Diamond Light Source.

The development of low-emittance storage rings and the rapid developments in nano-optics and imaging techniques are leading to decreasing X-ray spot sizes and increasing requirements on the environmental and mechanical stability of beamline components. In particular, temperature stability in the experimental hutches is critical to minimize uncontrolled displacements caused by thermal expansion and ensure consistent performance. Here, the design and thermal performance of the experimental hutches of the Nanoprobe beamline at Diamond Light Source are described, where a standard deviation of the room temperature down to 0.017°C over extended periods is demonstrated. The rooms are kept at constant temperature using water-cooled radiant panels which line the ceiling and walls. Radiant panels are relatively common in high-end electron microscopy rooms, but this is the first demonstration of their use for fine temperature control in an X-ray hutch and may provide a useful basis for future upgrades at upcoming low-emittance sources.

Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering using a miniature dispersive Rowland refocusing spectrometer.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) beamlines worldwide are steadily increasing their emphasis on full photon-in/photon-out spectroscopies, such as resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS), resonant X-ray emission spectroscopy (RXES) and high energy resolution fluorescence detection XAS (HERFD-XAS). In such cases, each beamline must match the choice of emission spectrometer to the scientific mission of its users. Previous work has recently reported a miniature tender X-ray spectrometer using a dispersive Rowland refocusing (DRR) geometry that functions with high energy resolution even with a large X-ray spot size on the sample [Holden et al. (2017). Rev. Sci. Instrum. 88, 073904]. This instrument has been used in the laboratory in multiple studies of non-resonant X-ray emission spectroscopy using a conventional X-ray tube, though only for preliminary measurements at a low-intensity microfocus synchrotron beamline. This paper reports an extensive study of the performance of a miniature DRR spectrometer at an unfocused wiggler beamline, where the incident monochromatic flux allows for resonant studies which are impossible in the laboratory. The results support the broader use of the present design and also suggest that the DRR method with an unfocused beam could have important applications for materials with low radiation damage thresholds and that would not survive analysis on focused beamlines.

Investigations on slow current driven X-pinch as soft X-ray source for radiographic applications

In this work, an X-pinch scheme on relatively slow and low current generator (110 kA with 1 μs rise time) has been developed. The X-pinches consists of two, 13 μm diameter molybdenum (Mo) or tungsten (W) wires have been characterized for its spatial and temporal parameters such as source size, pulse width, and X-ray energy. Multiple bursts of soft X-rays (1–5 keV) with a small contribution of hard X-ray (>5 keV) emitted from the cross point have been observed with both the materials. The X-ray yield, spot size (<25 μm) and pulse width (~5 ns) observed with different diagnostic techniques also the static radiography of wire mesh and dynamic radiographic of exploding wire in return conductor indicates that the X-ray source produced in the X-pinch has a potential in the point-projection radiography of the high-density plasma.

Characterizing profile tilt of nanoscale deep-etched gratings via x-ray diffraction

The authors report the development of fast, nondestructive, and high accuracy metrology for the characterization of profile tilt relative to the surface normal in nanoscale gratings using x-ray diffraction. Gratings were illuminated with a collimated x-ray beam (Cu Kα), similar to variable-angle small-angle x-ray scattering, to record changes of diffraction efficiency (DE) as a function of incidence angle. Simulations using scalar diffraction theory and rigorous coupled wave analysis predict extrema (0th order DE minimized, ±1st order DE maximized) when local grating bars are parallel to the incident x-ray beam. The surface normal was measured independently by reflecting a laser beam from the grating surface. The independent measurements using x rays and laser beams were referenced to each other via a slit reference plane to characterize the bar tilt angle relative to the surface normal. The fast x-ray measurement can be repeated at arbitrary points to study the spatial variation of the bar tilt angle across large gratings. Two test gratings etched with different deep reactive-ion etch chambers were prepared to investigate the performance of the proposed method. The authors report a repeatability of &amp;lt;0.01° and an accuracy of ∼0.08° with a fast scan speed (total integration time of 108 s to scan a line across ∼55 mm large grating samples at an interval of ∼2 mm). High spatial resolution (&amp;lt;50 μm) can be easily achieved at the expense of speed by limiting the incident x-ray spot size. This process is applicable to any periodic nanostructure as long as x-ray diffraction is well modeled.