X-ray Lens Research Articles

Fabrication of circular sawtooth gratings using focused UV lithography

This paper presents a novel micro-fabrication method using focused ultraviolet (UV) light to manufacture three-dimensional sawtooth structures in ultra-thick negative photoresist to fabricate a novel multi-prism x-ray lens. The method uses a lens to shape the UV beam instead of the photomask conventionally used in UV lithography. Benefits of this method include the ability to manufacture sawtooth structures in free form, for example in circular shapes as well as arrays of these shapes, and in resist that is up to 76 μm thick.To verify the method, initially a simple simulation based on Fourier optics was done to predict the exposure energy distribution in the photoresist. Furthermore, circular sawtooth gratings were manufactured in a 76 μm SU-8 resist. The UV lens was fabricated using electron beam lithography and then used to expose the SU-8 with UV light. This paper details the complete developed process, including pre-exposure with an e-beam and cold development, which creates stable sawtooth structures. The measured profile was compared to the ideal sawtooth and the simulation. The main discrepancy was in the smallest feature size, the sawtooth tips, which were wider than the desired structures, as would be expected by simulation.

Fabrication and characterization of high-efficiency double-sided blazed x-ray optics.

The focusing efficiency of conventional diffractive x-ray lenses is fundamentally limited due to their symmetric binary structures and the corresponding symmetry of their focusing and defocusing diffraction orders. Fresnel zone plates with asymmetric structure profiles can break this limitation; yet existing implementations compromise either on resolution, ease of use, or stability. We present a new way for the fabrication of such blazed lenses by patterning two complementary binary Fresnel zone plates on the front and back sides of the same membrane chip to provide a compact, inherently stable, single-chip device. The presented blazed double-sided zone plates with 200 nm smallest half-pitch provide up to 54.7% focusing efficiency at 6.2 keV, which is clearly beyond the value obtainable by their binary counterparts.

Single-crystal diamond refractive lens for focusing X-rays in two dimensions.

The fabrication and performance evaluation of single-crystal diamond refractive X-ray lenses of which the surfaces are paraboloids of revolution for focusing X-rays in two dimensions simultaneously are reported. The lenses were manufactured using a femtosecond laser micromachining process and tested using X-ray synchrotron radiation. Such lenses were stacked together to form a standard compound refractive lens (CRL). Owing to the superior physical properties of the material, diamond CRLs could become indispensable wavefront-preserving primary focusing optics for X-ray free-electron lasers and the next-generation synchrotron storage rings. They can be used for highly efficient refocusing of the extremely bright X-ray sources for secondary optical schemes with limited aperture such as nanofocusing Fresnel zone plates and multilayer Laue lenses.

一种基于方形多毛细管透镜的X射线探测系统设计

一种基于方形多毛细管透镜的X射线探测系统设计

Development of Fluorescence XAFS System in Soft X-Ray Region Toward Operando Conditions Using Polycapillary X-Ray Lens

Development of Fluorescence XAFS System in Soft X-Ray Region Toward Operando Conditions Using Polycapillary X-Ray Lens

Aberration-free short focal length x-ray lenses

We treat the problem of defining the ideal x-ray refractive lens design for point focusing of low emittance x-ray beams at third- and fourth-generation synchrotron sources. The task is accomplished by using Fermat's principle to define a lens shape that is completely free from geometrical aberrations. Current microfabrication resolution limits are identified, and a design that tolerates the inherent fabrication imperfections is proposed. The refractive lens design delivers nanometer-sized focused x-ray beams and is compatible with current microfabrication techniques.

Injection molded polymeric hard X-ray lenses

A novel and economical approach for fabricating compound refractive lenses for the purpose of focusing hard X-rays is described. A silicon master was manufactured by UV-lithography and deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). Sacrificial structures were utilized, which enabled accurate control of the etching profile and were removed after DRIE. By electroplating, an inverse nickel sample was obtained, which was used as a mold insert in a commercial polymer injection molding machine. A prototype lens made of polyethylene with a focal length of 350 mm was tested using synchrotron radiation at photon energies of 17 keV. A 55 µm long line focus with a minimal waist of 770 nm (FWHM) and a total lens transmittance of 32% were measured. Due to its suitability for cheap mass production, this highly efficient optics may find widespread use in hard X-ray instruments.

Optimizing shape uniformity and increasing structure heights of deep reactive ion etched silicon x-ray lenses

Line-focusing compound silicon x-ray lenses with structure heights exceeding 300 μm were fabricated using deep reactive ion etching. To ensure profile uniformity over the full height, a new strategy was developed in which the perimeter of the structures was defined by trenches of constant width. The remaining sacrificial material inside the lens cavities was removed by etching through the silicon wafer. Since the wafers become fragile after through-etching, they were then adhesively bonded to a carrier wafer. Individual chips were separated using laser micro machining and the 3D shape of fabricated lenses was thoroughly characterized by a variety of means. Optical testing using synchrotron radiation with a photon energy of 56 keV yielded a 300 μm wide beam with a waist of 980 nm (full width at half maximum) at a focal length of 1.3 m. Optical aberrations are discussed in the context of the shape analysis, where a slight bowing of the lens sidewalls and an insufficiently uniform apex region are identified as resolution-limiting factors. Despite these, the proposed fabrication route proved a viable approach for producing x-ray lenses with large structure heights and provides the means to improve the resolution and capabilities of modern x-ray techniques such as x-ray microscopy and 3D x-ray diffraction.

Hard-X-ray imaging of laser plasma using axisymmetric refractive lenses

An experimental scheme for studying laser-produced plasmas under extremal conditions with the aid of a compound refractive X-ray lens has been implemented. Laser-produced plasma bunches have been imaged in hard X-rays upon intense laser irradiation of a copper foil target.

Sacrificial structures for deep reactive ion etching of high-aspect ratio kinoform silicon x-ray lenses

This article describes the realization of complex high-aspect ratio silicon structures with feature dimensions from 100 μm to 100 nm by deep reactive ion etching using the Bosch process. As the exact shape of the sidewall profiles can be crucial for the proper functioning of a device, the authors investigated how sacrificial structures in the form of guarding walls and pillars may be utilized to facilitate accurate control of the etch profile. Unlike other sacrificial structuring approaches, no silicon-on-insulator substrates or multiple lithography steps are required. In addition, the safe removal of the sacrificial structures was accomplished by thermal oxidation and subsequent selective wet etching. The effects of the dimensions and relative placement of sacrificial walls and pillars on the etching result were determined through systematic experiments. The authors applied this process for exact sidewall control in the manufacture of x-ray lenses that are very sensitive to sidewall shape nonuniformities. Compound kinoform lenses for focusing hard x-rays with structure heights of 200 μm were manufactured, and the lenses were tested in terms of their focusing ability and refracting qualities using synchrotron radiation at a photon energy of 17 keV. A 180 μm long line focus with a waist of 430 nm at a focal length of 215 mm was obtained.

Opportunities and limitations for combined fly-scan ptychography and fluorescence microscopy.

X-ray fluorescence offers unparalleled sensitivity for imaging the nanoscale distribution of trace elements in micrometer thick samples, while x-ray ptychography offers an approach to image light element containing structures at a resolution beyond that of the x-ray lens used. These methods can be used in combination, and in continuous scan mode for rapid data acquisition when using multiple probe mode reconstruction methods. We discuss here the opportunities and limitations of making use of additional information provided by ptychography to improve x-ray fluorescence images in two ways: by using position-error-correction algorithms to correct for scan distortions in fluorescence scans, and by considering the signal-to-noise limits on previously-demonstrated ptychographic probe deconvolution methods. This highlights the advantages of using a combined approach.

Combined optic system based on polycapillary X-ray optics and single-bounce monocapillary optics for focusing X-rays from a conventional laboratory X-ray source

Two combined optic systems based on polycapillary X-ray optics and single-bounce monocapillary optics (SBMO) were designed for focusing the X-rays from a conventional laboratory X-ray source. One was based on a polycapillary focusing X-ray lens (PFXRL) and a single-bounce ellipsoidal capillary (SBEC), in which the output focal spot with the size of tens of micrometers of the PFXRL was used as the “virtual” X-ray source for the SBEC. The other system was based on a polycapillary parallel X-ray lens (PPXRL) and a single-bounce parabolic capillary (SBPC), in which the PPXRL transformed the divergent X-ray beam from an X-ray source into a quasi-parallel X-ray beam with the divergence of sever milliradians as the incident illumination of the SBPC. The experiment results showed that the combined optic systems based on PFXRL and SBEC with a Mo rotating anode X-ray generator with the focal spot with a diameter of 300μm could obtain a focal spot with the total gain of 14,300 and focal spot size of 37.4μm, and the combined optic systems based on PPXRL and SBPC with the same X-ray source mentioned above could acquire a focal spot with the total gain of 580 and focal spot size of 58.3μm, respectively. The two combined optic systems have potential applications in micro X-ray diffraction, micro X-ray fluorescence, micro X-ray absorption near edge structure, full field X-ray microscopes and so on.

Numerical design of polycapillary X-ray optics as both a focusing X-ray lens and a vacuum window

Polycapillary X-ray optics as a new application is proposed to be used as both a focusing X-ray lens and a vacuum window placed in the middle part which connected X-ray source in a clearly high vacuum with sample or detector in a moderate vacuum. Numerical results showed that such polycapillary X-ray optics had a low vacuum conductance, and it could be accordingly used as both such vacuum window for an X-ray source in a clearly high vacuum and a focusing X-ray lens at the same time.

Simulation of transmitted X-rays in a polycapillary X-ray lens

The geometrical description of capillary systems adjusted for the controlled guiding of X-rays and the basic theory of the transmission of X-rays are presented. A method of numerical calculation, based on Ray-Tracing theory, is developed to simulate the transmission efficiency of an X-ray parallel lens and the shape and size of the light spot gain from it. The simulation results for two half-lenses are in good agreement with the experimental results.

Manufacturing of advanced bent crystals for Laue Optics for Gamma ObservationS (LOGOS)

X- and γ-ray detection is currently a hot topic for a wide scientific community, spanning from astrophysics to nuclear medicine. However, lack of optics capable of focusing photons of energies in the energy range 0.1–1MeV leaves the photon detection to a direct-view approach, resulting in a limited efficiency and resolution. The main scope of the INFN-LOGOS project is the development of technologies that enable manufacturing highly performing optical elements to be employed in the realization of hard X-ray lenses. Such lenses, typically named Laue lenses, consist of an ensemble of crystals disposed in concentric rings in order to diffract the incident radiation towards the focus of the lens, where a detector is placed. In particular, the INFN-LOGOS project aims at the realization of intrinsically bent silicon and germanium crystals exploiting the quasi-mosaic effect for focusing hard X-rays. Crystal manufacturing relies on a proper revisitation of techniques typically employed in silicon micromachining, such as thin film deposition and patterning or ion implantation.

Modified x-ray polymer refractive cross lens with adiabatic contraction and its realization

A refractive x-ray lens with reduced focal length, due to continuous reduction in the designed aperture over the length of the lens, is presented. The lens elements have refractive parabolic sidewalls like geometrical prisms, with a varying cross section over the length of the lens, in accordance with the x-ray propagation law. The focusing effect occurs directly in the lens due to the fact that the initial x-ray beam is directed toward the focal point, and due to the phase retardation caused by the refractive properties of the sidewall surfaces. An array of such adiabatic lens elements with different optical parameters, arranged in a number of rows, represented by polymer microstructures, has been produced using x-ray lithography. Preliminary testing of the lenses has resulted in a focal spot of 67 nm at a photon energy of 18.6 keV.

A confocal three-dimensional micro X-ray scattering technology based on Rayleigh to Compton ratio for identifying materials with similar density and different weight percentages of low-Z elements

Abstract A point-by-point Rayleigh to Compton scattering ratio (R/C) imaging for two polymer materials with similar density and different weight percentages of low-Z elements was carried out by using the confocal three-dimensional (3D) micro X-ray scatter tomographic technology based on polycapillary X-ray optics. This confocal 3D micro X-ray scatter tomographic technique was based on the confocal configuration of a polycapillary focusing X-ray lens (PFXRL) in the excitation channel and a polycapillary parallel X-ray lens (PPXRL) in the detection channel, which let only the X-rays scattered from the confocal micro-volume overlapped by the input focal spot of the PPXRL and the output focal spot of the PFXRL be detected by the detector. The main scope of this study was using the confocal 3D micro X-ray scattering tomography based on the R/C ratio to characterize and identify materials with nearly equal low density and different weight percentages of low-Z elements, as other radiological techniques are difficult to discriminate them for their very close attenuation coefficients μ . A mapping of R/C ratios for two thermoplastic polymer materials was obtained, which provided the spatially resolved distribution of their effective atom numbers, and their differences were accordingly presented. This confocal 3D micro X-ray scatter tomographic technique has potential applications in fields such as material identification, dosimetry, medical imaging, carbonation cancer, and so on.

X-ray imaging of laser produced plasmas by a compound 3D x-ray lens

Pilot scheme for the study of plasma under extreme condition is implemented using a compound 3D X-ray lens. Hard X-ray image of laser plasma produced by irradiating of copper foil by intense laser pulse was recorded using this lens.

Advanced studies on the Polycapillary Optics use at XLab Frascati

X-ray analytical techniques are widely used in the world. By the way, due to the strong radiation–matter interaction, to design optical devices suitable for X-ray radiation remains still of wide interest. As a consequence of novel advanced material studies, in the last 30years several typologies of X-ray lenses have been developed. In this work, a short review on the status of Polycapillary Optics (polyCO), from design and fabrication to various applications, has been presented making comparison of the results achieved by several groups through different X-ray optical elements.A focus is regarded for advanced X-ray imaging and spectroscopy tools based on combination of the modern polyCO hardware and the reconstruction software, available as homemade and commercially ones. Recent results (in three main fields, high resolution X-ray imaging, micro-XRF spectroscopy and micro-tomography) obtained at XLab Frascati have been discussed.

Characterization of x-ray lens for use in probing high energy density states of matter

By using polycapillary lenses to focus laser-produced x-ray sources to high intensities, an improvement in signal-to-noise ratio can be achieved. Here the He-α line emission produced by driving a titanium backlighter target is focused by a polycapillary lens and the output characterized. The x-ray spot is measured to have a peak intensity of 4.5 × 107 photons, with a total photon count of 8.8 × 108 in 0.13 ± 0.01 mm2. This setup is equivalent to placing the backlighter target 3 mm from the sample with a 600 μm diameter pinhole. The polycapillary lens enables the placement of the backlighter target at a much larger distance from the sample to be studied and therefore has the ability to greatly improve the signal-to-noise ratio on detectors. We demonstrate this with two simple diffraction experiments using pyrolytic graphite and polycrystalline aluminium.