X-ray Fluorescence Imaging Research Articles

Enlightening the Pathway of Phytoremediation: Ecophysiology and X-ray Fluorescence Visualization of Two Chilean Hardwoods Exposed to Excess Copper

In the present climate emergency due to global warming, we are urged to move away from fossil fuels and pursue a speedy conversion to renewable energy systems. Consequently, copper (Cu) will remain in high demand because it is a highly efficient conductor used in clean energy systems to generate power from solar, hydro, thermal and wind energy across the world. Chile is the global leader in copper production, but this position has resulted in Chile having several hundred tailing deposits. We grew two Chilean native hardwood species, quillay (Quillaja saponaria Molina) and espino (Vachellia caven (Molina) Seigler & Ebinger, under three increasing Cu levels (0, 50, and 100 µM) for 6 months in a greenhouse setting. We measured growth, photosynthetic performance and elemental contents of leaves and roots to further evaluate their potential for phytoremediation. Growth of quillay was unaffected by Cu treatment but growth of espino was enhanced, as was its photosynthetic performance, indicating that espino may have an unusually high requirement for copper. Excess Cu was mostly restricted to the roots of both species, where X-ray fluorescence (XRF) mapping indicated some tendency for Cu to accumulate in tissues outside the periderm. Calcium oxalate crystals were prominently visible in XRF images of both species. Nickel (but not Cu) showed a concurrent distribution pattern with these crystals.

Application of Advanced Analytical Techniques in Organic Cultural Heritage: A Case Study of Ancient Architecture Relics in the Palace Museum (Beijing)

Multilayer objects with different interfaces are quite typical for architectural heritage, and from them may be inferred the age, production process, and deterioration mechanism through analyzing characteristic compositions with advanced analytical techniques. The Meiwu ceiling in the Hall of Mental Cultivation of the Palace Museum was found to contain many paper-based layers during conservation. Once several surface strata were detached, a colorful layer of printed fabric textile was discovered integrally. Through microscopic observation and micro-attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) imaging, the overall structure consisted of 11 layers, namely, bast paper, cotton wiring, xuan paper, cotton printed fabric, two yellow board papers, bamboo paper, three wood pulp paper and surface coatings, and starch was considered as an organic adhesive. For identification of the printed fabric’s color palette, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) combined with high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF) technology, non-invasive macro X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) and desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) were applied in situ. Seven industrial synthetic dyes, including auramine O, malachite green, and eosin Y with corresponding by-products, as well as chromium-based pigments considered as dark draft line, were confirmed. By X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and micro Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (micro FTIR, other results showed chalk soil and talc for the outermost coating. According to the synthetic time of industrial dyes and degradation degree of paper, there were at least four occurrences and their specific time periods were speculated.

Confocal XRF imaging for determination of arsenic distribution in a sample of historic plaster

This paper describes the use of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scanning, XRF microanalysis, and confocal XRF for identification of toxic elements, especially arsenic, in a sample taken from a historic wall of the rectory building in Potštát (Přerov district, Czech Republic). We focused our attention mainly on the confocal XRF imaging, which can visualize non-destructively a cross-section of a selected part of the sample. Since the images of X-ray intensities are disturbed by the X-ray absorption in a sample, a method reducing this effect was proposed and applied for the determination of the arsenic depth distribution. This method comprises an experimental determination of attenuation coefficients for the excitation beam and the arsenic characteristic X-rays as well. These coefficients are derived from the exponential decrease of scattered radiation intensities in energy regions corresponding to the excitation X-ray energies and energies of scattered X-rays close to the arsenic Kα line, respectively. This correction improved the image showing the depth distribution of arsenic in the sample.

Brass Material Analysis With Deep-Learning-Based CdTe Semiconductor X-Ray Fluorescence System

An X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging system is a material analysis system that can represent the material distribution and types of elements by detecting characteristic X-rays emitted from each element. A CdTe semiconductor detector array whose detection efficiency is significantly higher than a silicon drift detector (SDD) is utilized with a deep learning method to improve the energy spectral analysis. In this study, deep learning models for material discrimination and quantitation were applied based on 20 000 energy spectra obtained from Fe, Ni, Cu, and Zn rod phantoms, and a brass phantom was analyzed to verify that Cu, Zn, and brass can be distinguished from each other and that the amount of Cu and Zn in each phantom can be quantitatively analyzed.

Spatial resolution and image processing for pinhole camera-based X-ray fluorescence imaging: a simulation study

Spatial resolution and image processing for pinhole camera-based X-ray fluorescence imaging: a simulation study

Homogeneity assessment of the SuperCam calibration targets onboard rover perseverance

The SuperCam instrument, onboard the Perseverance rover (Mars 2020 mission) is designed to perform remote analysis on the Martian surface employing several spectroscopic techniques such as Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), Time-Resolved Raman (TRR), Time-Resolved Fluorescence (TRF) and Visible and Infrared (VISIR) reflectance. In addition, SuperCam also acquires high-resolution images using a color remote micro-imager (RMI) as well as sounds with its microphone. SuperCam has three main subsystems, the Mast Unit (MU) where the laser for chemical analysis and collection optics are housed, the Body Unit (BU) where the different spectrometers are located inside the rover, and the SuperCam Calibration Target (SCCT) located on the rover's deck to facilitate calibration tests at similar ambient conditions as the analyzed samples. To perform adequate calibrations on Mars, the 22 mineral samples included in the complex SCCT assembly must have a very homogeneous distribution of major and minor elements. The analysis and verification of such homogeneity for the 5–6 replicates of the samples included in the SCCT has been the aim of this work. To verify the physic-chemical homogeneity of the calibration targets, micro Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) imaging was first used on the whole surface of the targets, then the relative abundances of the detected elements were computed on 20 randomly distributed areas of 100 × 100 μm. For those targets showing a positive Raman response, micro-Raman spectroscopy imaging was performed on the whole surface of the targets at a resolution of 100 × 100 μm. The %RSD values (percent of relative standard deviation of mean values) for the major elements measured with EDXRF were compared with similar values obtained by two independent LIBS set-ups at spot sizes of 300 μm in diameter. The statistical analysis showed which elements were homogeneously distributed in the 22 mineral targets of the SCCT, providing their uncertainty values for further calibration. Moreover, nine of the 22 targets showed a good Raman response and their mineral distributions were also studied. Those targets can be also used for calibration purposes of the Raman part of SuperCam using the wavenumbers of their main Raman bands proposed in this work.

Enabling Coarse X-ray Fluorescence Imaging Scans with Enlarged Synchrotron Beam by Means of Mosaic Crystal Defocusing Optics.

Trace elements, functionalized nanoparticles and labeled entities can be localized with sub-mm spatial resolution by X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI). Here, small animals are raster scanned with a pencil-like synchrotron beam of high energy and low divergence and the X-ray fluorescence is recorded with an energy-dispersive detector. The ability to first perform coarse scans to identify regions of interest, followed by a close-up with a sub-mm X-ray beam is desirable, because overall measurement time and X-ray dose absorbed by the (biological) specimen can thus be minimized. However, the size of X-ray beams at synchrotron beamlines is usually strongly dependent on the actual beamline setup and can only be adapted within specific pre-defined limits. Especially, large synchrotron beams are non-trivial to generate. Here, we present the concept of graphite-based, convex reflection optics for the one-dimensional enlargement of a 1 mm wide synchrotron beam by a factor of 5 to 10 within a 1 m distance. Four different optics are tested and characterized and their reflection properties compared to ray tracing simulations. The general shape and size of the measured reflection profiles agree with expectations. Enhancements with respect to homogeneity and efficiency can be expected with improved optics manufacturing. A mouse phantom is used for a proof-of-principle XFI experiment demonstrating the applicability of coarse and fine scans with the suggested optics design.

Altering the localization and toxicity of arsenic in rice grain

Previous work has shown that inorganic As localizes in rice bran whereas DMA localizes in the endosperm, but less is known about co-localization of As and S species and how they are affected by growing conditions. We used high-resolution synchrotron X-ray fluorescence imaging to image As and S species in rice grain from plants grown to maturity in soil (field and pot) and hydroponically (DMA or arsenite dosed) at field-relevant As concentrations. In hydroponics, arsenite was localized in the ovular vascular trace (OVT) and the bran while DMA permeated the endosperm and was absent from the OVT in all grains analyzed, and As species had no affect on S species. In pot studies, soil amended with Si-rich rice husk with higher DMA shifted grain As into the endosperm for both japonica and indica ecotypes. In field-grown rice from low-As soil, As localized in the OVT as arsenite glutathione, arsenite, and DMA. Results support a circumferential model of grain filling for arsenite and DMA and show Si-rich soil amendments alter grain As localization, potentially lessening risk to rice consumers.

Multimodal imaging of hemorrhagic transformation biomarkers in an ischemic stroke model.

Hemorrhagic transformation of ischemic stroke has devastating consequences, with high mortality and poor functional outcomes. Animal models of ischemic stroke also demonstrate the potential for hemorrhagic transformation, which complicates biochemical characterization, treatment studies, and hinders poststroke functional outcomes in affected subjects. The incidence of hemorrhagic transformation of ischemic stroke in animal model research is not commonly reported. The postmortem brain of such cases presents a complex milieu of biomarkers due to the presence of healthy cells, regions of varying degrees of ischemia, dead and dying cells, dysregulated metabolites, and blood components (especially reactive Fe species released from lysed erythrocytes). To improve the characterization of hemorrhage biomarkers on an ischemic stroke background, we have employed a combination of histology, X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic imaging to assess 122 photothrombotic (ischemic) stroke brains. Rapid freezing preserves brain biomarkers in situ and minimizes metabolic artifacts due to postmortem ischemia. Analysis revealed that 25% of the photothrombotic models had clear signs of hemorrhagic transformation. The XFI and FTIR metabolites provided a quantitative method to differentiate key metabolic regions in these models. Across all hemorrhage cases, it was possible to consistently differentiate otherwise healthy tissue from other metabolically distinct regions, including the ischemic infarct, the ischemic penumbra, blood vessels, sites of hemorrhage, and a region surrounding the hemorrhage core that contained elevated lipid oxidation. Chemical speciation of deposited Fe demonstrates the presence of heme-Fe and accumulation of ferritin.

Delivery of cisplatin and resiquimod in nanomicelles for the chemoimmunotherapy of ovarian cancer

BackgroundTo explore the effect and mechanism of delivery of cisplatin (CDDP) and resiquimod in nanomicelles for the chemoimmunotherapy of ovarian cancer in vivo and in vitro.MethodsPoly(l-glutamic acid)-graft-methoxypolyethylene glycols (PLG-g-mPEG) was used to carry cisplatin and resiquimod for the preparation of CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG. We determined the loading content (LC) and encapsulation efficiency (EE), and then observed the particle shape, particle size distribution and zeta potential. In this study, we recruited 30 healthy adult participants and isolated mononuclear cells, and they were randomly classified into a control group, a CDDP group, a resiquimod group, a CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG group and a IFN-γ + LPS group to identify macrophages markers in different polarization states. We conducted microprobe synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SRXRF) imaging to observe the cell uptake. Furthermore, we observed the effects of CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG on the growth and colony formation of SW626 cells and the expressions of apoptosis-associated genes and proteins. Tumor-bearing mouse models of ovarian cancer were prepared and randomized into a negative control group, a PLG-g-mPEG group, a CDDP group, a resiquimod group and a CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG group, so as to analyze the anti-cancer effect of CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG in vivo.ResultsThe LC and EE of CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG were 19.42% and 90.12%, respectively. Nanoparticles were uniform spherical in shape and closely arranged together, with a typical core–shell structure, and their average particle size and zeta potential were 82.36 nm and − 23.69 mV, respectively. When CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG group was compared with the control group, the positive expression rate of CD16 in the CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG group highly increased, whereas the positive expression rate of CD163 dramatically decreased. In the meantime, Arg1 and Mrc1 mRNA expressions significantly decreased whereas IL-12 and NOS2 mRNA expressions dramatically increased (P < 0.05). Elemental mapping of cells exhibited notable internalization of cisplatin delivered by CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG to cytoplasm. We compared the cell survival rate between the CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG group and the control group, the CDDP/resiquimod/PLG-g-mPEG group sharply reduced (P < 0.05). What’s more, the inhibitory effect got strengthened as the reaction time was prolonged, with the synergy coefficient of 0.31.ConclusionPLG-g-mPEG-loaded CDDP and resiquimod effectively achieves the targeted delivery of chemotherapy and immunotherapy, with a strong synergistic anti-cancer effect.

Engineering CsPbBr3 perovskite from 2D nanoplatelets to 0D quantum dots via polar solvent post-treatment

Cesium lead halide (CsPbX3 X = I, Br, Cl) perovskites have potential applications in the fields of X-ray fluorescence imaging, solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and photocatalysis due to their excellent optical and electrical properties. In this work, we propose a novel method to tune the emission color of CsPbBr3 by polar solvent post-treatment. The blue emission color of the two-dimensional (2D) CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets (NPLs) prepared at room temperature is evidently changed to green under UV excitation via DMF post-treatment. We verify the DMF is used to decompose these NPLs into 0D quantum dots followed by the color variation. We further reveals the polarity of the employed solvent is the main parameter in the decomposition processes. This novel route might be suitable for other 2D perovskites and benefit the application of these colorful products in LEDs and information storage fields.

Cellular Detection of a Mitochondria Targeted Brominated Vinyl Triphenylamine Optical Probe (TP-Br) by X-Ray Fluorescence Microscopy.

Triphenylamine (TP) derivatives such as two-branch cationic vinylbenzimidazolium triphenylamine TP-2Bzim are promising turn-on fluorescent probes suitable for two-photon imaging, labelling mitochondria in live cells. Here, we designed two TP-2Bzim derivatives as bimodal probes suitable for X-ray fluorescence imaging. The conjugation of the TP core with a rhenium tricarbonyl moiety in the TP-RePyta probe altered the localisation in live cells from mitochondria to lysosomes. The introduction of bromine on the TP core generated the TP-Br probe retaining good photophysical properties and mitochondria labelling in live cells. The influence of calcium channels in the uptake of TP-Br was studied. Synchrotron Radiation X-ray Fluorescence (SXRF) imaging of bromine enabled the detection of TP-Br and suggested a negligible presence of the probe in an unbound state in the incubated cells, a crucial point in the development of these probes. This study paves the way towards the development of TP probes as specific organelle stainers suitable for SXRF imaging.

New aspects of the photodegradation of iron(III) citrate: spectroscopic studies and plant-related factors

Iron (Fe) is an essential cofactor for all livings. Although Fe membrane transport mechanisms often utilize FeII, uncoordinated or deliberated ferrous ions can initiate Fenton reactions. FeIII citrate complexes are among the most important complexed forms of FeIII especially in plants that, indeed, can undergo photoreduction. Since leaves as photosynthetic organs of higher plants are generally exposed to illumination in daytime, photoreaction of ferric species may have biological relevance in iron metabolism, the relevance of which is poorly understood. In present work FeIII citrate transformation during the photodegradation in solution and after foliar application on leaves was studied by Mössbauer analysis directly. To obtain irradiation time dependence of the speciation of iron in solutions, four model solutions of different pH values (1.5, 3.3, 5.5, and 7.0) with Fe to citrate molar ratio 1:1.1 were exposed to light. Highly acidic conditions led to a complete reduction of Fe together with the formation of FeII citrate and hexaaqua complexes in equal concentration. At higher pH, the only product of the photodegradation was FeII citrate, which was later reoxidized and polymerized, resulting in the formation of polynuclear stable ferric compound. To test biological relevance, leaves of cabbage were treated with FeIII citrate solution. X-ray fluorescence imaging indicated the accumulation of Fe in the treated leaf parts. Mössbauer analysis revealed the presence of several ferric species incorporated into the biological structure. The Fe speciation observed should be considered in biological systems where FeIII citrate has a ubiquitous role in Fe acquisition and homeostasis.Graphical abstract

Targeted Positioning of Quantum Dots Inside 3D Silicon Photonic Crystals Revealed by Synchrotron X-ray Fluorescence Tomography.

It is a major outstanding goal in nanotechnology to precisely position functional nanoparticles, such as quantum dots, inside a three-dimensional (3D) nanostructure in order to realize innovative functions. Once the 3D positioning is performed, the challenge arises how to nondestructively verify where the nanoparticles reside in the 3D nanostructure. Here, we study 3D photonic band gap crystals made of Si that are infiltrated with PbS nanocrystal quantum dots. The nanocrystals are covalently bonded to polymer brush layers that are grafted to the Si–air interfaces inside the 3D nanostructure using surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP). The functionalized 3D nanostructures are probed by synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (SXRF) tomography that is performed at 17 keV photon energy to obtain large penetration depths and efficient excitation of the elements of interest. Spatial projection maps were obtained followed by tomographic reconstruction to obtain the 3D atom density distribution with 50 nm voxel size for all chemical elements probed: Cl, Cr, Cu, Ga, Br, and Pb. The quantum dots are found to be positioned inside the 3D nanostructure, and their positions correlate with the positions of elements characteristic of the polymer brush layer and the ATRP initiator. We conclude that X-ray fluorescence tomography is very well suited to nondestructively characterize 3D nanomaterials with photonic and other functionalities.

In-situ x-ray fluorescence imaging of the endogenous iodine distribution in murine thyroids

X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI) is a non-invasive detection method of small quantities of elements, which can be excited to emit fluorescence x-ray photons upon irradiation with an incident x-ray beam. In particular, it can be used to measure nanoparticle uptake in cells and tissue, thus making it a versatile medical imaging modality. However, due to substantially increased multiple Compton scattering background in the measured x-ray spectra, its sensitivity severely decreases for thicker objects, so far limiting its applicability for tracking very small quantities under in-vivo conditions. Reducing the detection limit would enable the ability to track labeled cells, promising new insights into immune response and pharmacokinetics. We present a synchrotron-based approach for reducing the minimal detectable marker concentration by demonstrating the feasibility of XFI for measuring the yet inaccessible distribution of the endogenous iodine in murine thyroids under in-vivo conform conditions. This result can be used as a reference case for the design of future preclinical XFI applications as mentioned above.

The mechanism of “flint red” and its relationship with celadon glaze color

"Flint red" is the red narrow band found in the exposed body of porcelain, which is a common phenomenon in ancient porcelain. Some experts believe that flint red is an important symbol for judging the age of ancient ceramics. This paper takes sky-green Yaozhou porcelain as the example, and successfully fired samples of Yaozhou porcelain with flint red, and reveals the formation mechanism of flint red. This study uses XRF (X-ray fluorescence), XRD (X-ray diffraction), SEM (Scanning electron microscope) and non-contact imaging spectrophotometer analysis to discover for the first time that during the reduction process, the iron of the glaze migrates to the body with the melt in the gas phase, and the flint red is a hematite thin film formed on the body after being oxidized for the second time during the cooling process of the kiln. The influence of the redox atmosphere and placement mode of ceramics on flint red were studied. The relationship between flint red and the degree of color reduction of celadon glaze surface was discussed. In addition, the growth method of hematite film is enlightening for the preparation of anticorrosive coatings on steel products, and has broad application prospects.

The dark halo technique in the oeuvre of Michael Sweerts and other Flemish and Dutch baroque painters. A 17th c. empirical solution to mitigate the optical \u2018simultaneous contrast\u2019 effect?

Although the topic is rarely addressed in literature, a significant number of baroque paintings exhibit dark, halo-like shapes around the contours of the dramatis personae. Close examination of both finished and unfinished works suggests that this intriguing feature was a practical tool that helped the artist in the early painting stages. When applying the final brushwork, the halo lost its function, with some artists undertaking efforts to hide it. Although their visibility might not have been intended by the artists, today this dark paint beneath the surface is partially visible through the upper paint layers. Moreover, the disclosure of many halos using infrared photography (IRP), infrared reflectography (IRR) and macro X-ray fluorescence imaging (MA-XRF), additional to those that can be observed visually, suggests that this was a common and established element of 17th-century painting practice in Western Europe. Building on an existing hypothesis, we argue that halos can be considered as a solution to an optical problem that arose when baroque painters reversed the traditional, 15th- and 16th-century painting sequence of working from background to foreground. Instead, they started with the dominant parts of a composition, such as the face of a sitter. In that case, a temporary halo can provide the essential tonal reference to anticipate the chromatic impact of the final dark colored background on the adjacent delicate carnations. In particular, we attempt to clarify the prevalence of dark halos as a response to optical effects such as ‘simultaneous contrast’ and ‘the crispening effect’, described in literature only centuries later. As such, the recently termed ‘ring condition’ can be seen as the present-day equivalent of the ‘halo solution’ that was seemingly empirically or intuitively developed by 17th-century artists. Modern studies in visual perception proves that by laying a black ring around a target color, the optical impact of a surrounding color can be efficiently neutralized. Finally, by delving into works by Michael Sweerts, it becomes clear that resourceful artists might have adapted the halo technique and the underlying principles to their individual challenges, such as dealing with differently colored grounds.

In Situ X-ray Fluorescence Evaluation of Metal Ion Adsorption on Ferric Oxyhydroxide in Frozen Solutions

Cryosphere plays an important role in the global circulation of various chemical substances through the chemical processes that occur therein. Metal ions are adsorbed on adsorbents, such as ferric (oxy)hydroxides (FeOxH) and iron manganese oxides, and can be accumulated in the frozen phases. The metal ions can be supplied from the cryosphere to the hydrosphere in the bioavailable form by the desorption of metal ions during ice melting. Therefore, quantitative evaluation of the adsorption of metal ions in the frozen state is important to understand their exchange between the frozen and solution phases. Here, we propose in situ synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (XRF) as an appropriate method to quantitatively measure the adsorption of metal ions on FeOxH in a frozen solution. When NaCl solution freezes, a freeze-concentrated solution (FCS) is separated from ice. XRF imaging confirms that the first-row transition metal ions, that is, Mn2+, Co2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+, are enriched with FeOxH in the FCS. While in the presence of tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (tris), Cu2+ forms a stable tris-complex and does not adsorb on FeOxH, other metal ions are partially adsorbed on FeOxH. Therefore, Cu2+ is always dissolved in the FCS, but other metal ions are distributed in both FCS and FeOxH. The linear correlations between the normalized XRF intensity of Cu2+ and those of other metal ions dissolved in the FCS are confirmed. Also, the normalized XRF intensity of Fe in FeOxH is proportional to those of the adsorbed metal ions. Thus, the XRF signals of Cu and Fe are considered to represent the other metal ions contained in the FCS and those adsorbed on FeOxH, respectively. The multivariate regression analysis provides the relative contributions of these two different states of the metal ion in frozen samples. From the regression coefficients, the adsorption ratio of the metal ion in the frozen phase can be estimated. The time change in the adsorption ratio is also successfully evaluated using this method.

Image Processing Perspectives of X-Ray Fluorescence Data in Cultural Heritage Sciences

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of art objects has rapidly gained popularity since the late 2000s due to its increased accessibility to scientists. This introduced an imaging component whereby the XRF image volume provides clues as to which chemical elements are present and where they are located spatially in the object. However, as is the nature of collecting measurements, there are limitations preventing perfect acquisition; e.g. spatial resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, etc. The field of image processing, in part, aims to overcome these limitations. Image processing applications in XRF imaging are only just starting to arise due to the increased interest and availability in XRF analysis. In this paper, we aim to reach readers in XRF imaging or image processing in an effort to call for further research in the field. We review the basics of XRF imaging and analysis that is tailored for those unfamiliar with this imaging modality. We then delve into various publications of image processing methods as applied to XRF data. Throughout this paper, we examine (and opine on) the XRF field through a lens of the image processing field.

A bimodal probe for fluorescence and synchrotron X-ray fluorescence imaging of dopaminergic neurons in the brain.

A bimodal probe, the erythrosine B (EB) conjugated immunoglobulin G complex (EB/IgG), has been developed for the fluorescence and synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (SXRF) imaging of dopaminergic neurons in the brain.