Worst Flood Research Articles

Operation Navajeevan: A Public-Private Partnership Model for Disaster Relief in Kozhikode, India.

In August 2018, India's southern state of Kerala experienced its worst flooding in over a century. This report describes the relief efforts in Kozhikode, a coastal region of Kerala, where Operation Navajeevan was initiated. Data were collected from a centralized database at the command center in the District Medical Office as well as first-hand accounts from providers who participated in the relief effort. From August 15 through September 8, 2018, 36,846 flood victims were seen at 280 relief camps. The most common cause for presentation was exacerbation of an on-going chronic medical condition (18,490; 50.2%). Other common presentations included acute respiratory infection (7,451; 20.2%), traumatic injuries (3,736; 10.4%), and psychiatric illness (5,327; 14.5%). The prevalence of chronic disease exacerbation as the primary presentation during Operation Navajeevan represents an epidemiologic shift in disaster relief in India. It is foreseeable that as access to health care improves in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and climate change increases the prevalence of extreme weather events around the world, that this trend will continue.

AHP-GIS analysis for flood hazard assessment of the communities nearby the world heritage site on Ayutthaya Island, Thailand

Thailand faced the worst flooding in half a century in 2011. A previous flood had harshly affected the UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS) and the surrounding communities. The aims of this study were to assess the spatial distribution of flood hazards and analyze how past experience contributed to community flood readiness. Both GIS analysis and household surveys (n = 405) were systematically performed. According to the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) technique, approximately half of the whole community area (52.63%) and the WHS (44.8%) were at high risk of flooding. Pratuchai, the most populated subdistrict, was at the highest flood hazard level. Runoff and road density were the main contributors to flooding in a community. Regression analysis found that there was a negative correlation between past flood experience and residents’ flood readiness. According to the cluster analysis, there were two groups of respondents: i) those who had more experience with both flood hazards and the inaccessibility of urban services during a flood and were less likely to prepare themselves for future floods (n = 313) and ii) those who had less experience with floods and the inaccessibility of urban services and were more likely to prepare for future floods (n = 92). This implies, in short, that the local populace had not learned much from past experiences of a flood disasters. Advance urban flood management, multi-hazard zoning, and effective flood risk communication are urgently needed to improve flood resilience in the WHS communities.

Analysis of Climate Change’s Effect on Flood Risk. Case Study of Reinosa in the Ebro River Basin

Floods are one of the natural hazards that could be most affected by climate change, causing great economic damage and casualties in the world. On December 2019 in Reinosa (Cantabria, Spain), took place one of the worst floods in memory. Implementation of DIRECTIVE 2007/60/EC for the assessment and management of flood risks in Spain enabled the detection of this river basin with a potential significant flood risk via a preliminary flood risk assessment, and flood hazard and flood risk maps were developed. The main objective of this paper is to present a methodology to estimate climate change’s effects on flood hazard and flood risk, with Reinosa as the case study. This river basin is affected by the snow phenomenon, even more sensitive to climate change. Using different climate models, regarding a scenario of comparatively high greenhouse gas emissions (RCP8.5), with daily temperature and precipitation data from years 2007–2070, and comparing results in relative terms, flow rate and flood risk variation due to climate change are estimated. In the specific case of Reinosa, the MRI-CGCM3 model shows that climate change will cause a significant increase of potential affected inhabitants and economic damage due to flood risk. This evaluation enables us to define mitigation actions in terms of cost–benefit analysis and prioritize the ones that should be included in flood risk management plans.

Assessment of community disaster resilience among Kelantan flood affected community: A cross sectional study.

Introduction: Community disaster resilience (CDR) is the community abilities to cope, with stands and accommodate disturbances caused by hazard exposure. In 2014, the east coast Malaysia had the worst flood disaster and many lost their home, belongings and everything was uncontrolled and messy. Despite the regular flood, the status of CDR is unknown. Thus, the aim of this study is to assess the Kelantan's flood victims on their CDR level, resilience factors and its association to demographic profiles. Methods: A crosssectional survey using CCRAM28 questionnaire was done in 6 areas within 6 months in 2015. Respondents recruited purposely as they meet the criteria (18 years and above, understand Malay, moved to flood shelter). Descriptive and inferential analyses were done using SPSS software. Results: 100% returns rate (n=386). CDR level (mean) were between medium (2.34- 3.66) and high (3.67- 5.00). Among the living area, marital status, age, gender, income, religion, education, only gender (p = 0.003) and education level (p = 0.001) were significantly related to CDR level. Positive and strong correlation were seen between each resilience factors namely leadership (p = 0.001), collective efficacy (p = 0.001); preparedness (p = 0.001); place attachment (p = 0.001) and social trust (p = 0.001) consecutively. Conclusions: The study shows an acceptable CDR level, strong association between each of the resilience factors and between communities’ demographic characteristics and their CDR level. To ensure high level and continuous CDR, assessment and activities to build the resilience should be introduced by the state of Kelantan or the government of Malaysia.

Cost-Effective Optimization of Nature-Based Solutions for Reducing Urban Floods Considering Limited Space Availability

The conventional urban stormwater management practices focus on carrying away runoff quickly by lined conveyors, which increase the surface runoff and reduce the time of concentration, subsequently causing floods in downstream areas. Ecological Management Practices (EMPs) provide nature-based solutions for reducing flood risks in a sustainable and economically viable manner. However, in the rapidly urbanizing setups in developing nations, the application of EMPs is limited due to space availability, data scarcity and limited funding. This study uses a Non-Linear Programming Optimization Technique to provide modelling solutions in optimizing the land-use and costs under EMPs to reduce flood risks in the Quebrada Aries watershed in the Municipality of Heredia in Costa Rica. Depending on the availability and ease of execution, a combination of three EMPs (bio-retention areas, infiltration trenches and green roofs) were tested. The effect of the application of derived optimal combinations has been analysed. The optimal combination of EMPs analysed for different channel capacity was able to reduce the peak discharge for the worst flood causing event of 50 years return period from 16.86 m3/s (under current land-use) to 9 m3/s, 9.51 m3/s, 8.38 m3/s and 9.13 m3/s in four hypothetical scenarios considered. In urbanized catchments, EMPs cannot be applied indefinitely to avoid floods. However, an optimal combination of EMPs can drastically reduce the requirement of large capacity drainage channels. This information can help policy-makers to analyse trade-offs between urban development and flood control measures. The study is suitable for other data-scarce regions as well.

Flow or Fence: Learning, Preserving, and Redefining the Riverfront Cultural Landscape

The Chao Phraya River and the network of canals or “klongs” are the origin of Bangkok’s nick-name “Venice of the East”. Its amphibian nature of lower delta area where used to be covered by the sea around 5000 years ago provides a water-based settlement for the citizens. Rivers as an agricultural irrigation system are also used for daily consumption, transportation, and drainage channels. Bangkok was established in 1782 as the capital of Thailand by King Rama I of the Chakri Dynasty. The location is on a flood plain delta of the Chao Phraya River with the same consideration as the up north old capital Ayutthaya; the river is performed as a natural defense against enemies and also provides a water-based settlement for the citizens. The worst flood in Thailand’s history occurred during the 2011 monsoon season; July to November; that became the severest flood disaster hit parts of the capital city of Bangkok and resulted in a total of 815 deaths and 65 of Thailand’s 77 provinces were declared flood disaster zones, and over 20,000 square kilometers (7700 square miles) of farmland was damaged. The most affected areas were the recent capital Bangkok and the old capital Ayutthaya. The major causes were not only from the natural disaster but also water management failures from the human disaster. The studies aimed to include the survey of after-flood areas, reviewing the history of the waterfront communities and their attitudes toward development and changes, then discussed threats and crisis to the cultural landscape, the cause and effects of the disaster, the theoretical framework of the best management practices and the resolutions models proposed by the involved authorities. Whilst, history also gives us a sense of identity and traditional wisdom, the paper tried to find a paradigm shift and invented best practices for future generation flood protection using “the meaning and spirit of cultural landscape” model.

The impact of flooding on primary education in Kroch Chmar District, Tbong Khmum Province, Cambodia

Cambodia is a vulnerable country to natural disasters such as flood and tropical storms; it ranked as the world’s 9th worst affected by disaster. In particular, flood has affected to people’s lives and education in the flood-prone areas. Accordingly, the research aimed to provide a thorough understanding of the impact of floods on the education and underlying causes of the community’s vulnerability. The research takes a close look upon: how worst flood has affected children schooling, perception of parents regarding children performance and safety at school during flood, as well as problems and challenges faced from flooding on flood-prone community vis-à-vis curriculum, and infrastructure. The research found that (1) flood interrupted schools because classes were suspended or closed between two weeks and a month. (2) Girls were the most vulnerable to the floods and their parents concerned about their safety during the flood. (3) There was related association between risks happened during flood and coming to schools; but it was significantly associated between impacts of flood and students’ repetition. (4) The students satisfied with physical infrastructures and school services because the schools could create fairly good learning environment. In the future, impacts of flood on education may be improved through resource mobilization and capacity building of the schools to implement flood risk management effectively.

Flood debit analysis based on land use: A case of Batang Arau Watershed, Padang

A flood may occur for both climatology and human action factors. The climatology factors can be in the form of land degradation, land-use changes, and population increase. The land-use changes can identify when there is a conversion of recharge area into a built area. The conversion may happen because there is potency for a flood area to transform into a place of cities development and settlements. When the population increases, space needed also enlarges. Consequently, the surface flow increase and can cause a flood. Padang - Indonesia, has high rainfall intensity around 3,329 to 4,296 mm/year, which results in a frequent flood. The worst flood occurred on 26 September 2018 and 2 November 2018, which washed away a bridge and caused a 3-meter high puddle. In analyzing those phenomena, this study applied a descriptive qualitative method. The image used in the map was analyzed with Argis X quantum program to get a flood-prone map. The rainfall was calculated by using methods of Thiesen, Gumbel, and Log Pearson III, while the debt calculated using the rational method. The difference debit between these was 42,030m3/second. The results, the amount of land used to discharge was higher than due to the rainfall.

Rule of Law and Natural Disasters in India

In India, Kerala witnessed the worst floods of all times in 2018. It left 483 people dead and the destruction caused was more than the annual outlay of Kerala (Economic Times:2018). It left people devastated and scarred for life. Natural disasters of such magnitude violate the principle of “inter-generational equity”. The genesis of sustainable development can be traced back to the principle of “rule of law”. It is based on the fundamental requisite of equality and absence of arbitrary powers. Environmental degradation violates rule of law because it exposes people to risk of natural disasters. Rule of Law is the harbinger of environmental governance. Secretary General of UN defined rule of law as “a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards” (UNEP: 2015). It also forms the bulwark of SDGs. The 13th SDG of “Climate Action” aims to help the vulnerable countries to adapt to climate change and how disaster risk measures can be integrated into the national strategies (UNDP).Natural disasters not only result in the loss of life and property, it also brings forth the social and economic inequalities exiting in the society. In India various vulnerabilities like caste, gender, poverty are aggravated in the wake of disasters. This calls for the integration of rule of law in disaster management. The violation of environmental laws has the potential to undermine sustainable development which hampers ‘rule of law’. In the proposed paper we try to critically evaluate the upcoming idea of environmental rule of law and appraise its evolution and application in the larger framework of Disaster Law in India.

The Extreme Precipitation Index (EPI): A Coupled Dynamic–Thermodynamic Metric to Diagnose Midlatitude Floods Associated with Flow Reversal

Abstract The extreme precipitation index (EPI) is a coupled dynamic–thermodynamic metric that can diagnose extreme precipitation events associated with flow reversal in the mid- to upper troposphere (e.g., Rex and omega blocks, cutoff cyclones, Rossby wave breaks). Recent billion dollar (U.S. dollars) floods across the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes were associated with flow reversal, as long-duration ascent (dynamics) occurred in the presence of anomalously warm and moist air (thermodynamics). The EPI can detect this potent combination of ingredients and offers advantages over model precipitation forecasts because it relies on mass fields instead of parameterizations. The EPI’s dynamics component incorporates modified versions of two accepted blocking criteria, designed to detect flow reversal during the relatively short duration of extreme precipitation events. The thermodynamic component utilizes standardized anomalies of equivalent potential temperature. Proof-of-concept is demonstrated using four high-impact floods: the 2013 Alberta Flood, Canada’s second costliest natural disaster on record; the 2016 western Europe Flood, which caused the worst flooding in France in a century; the 2000 southern Alpine event responsible for major flooding in Switzerland; and the catastrophic August 2016 Louisiana Flood. EPI frequency maxima are located across the North Atlantic and North Pacific mid- and high latitudes, including near the climatological subtropical jet stream, while secondary maxima are located near the Rockies and Alps. EPI accuracy is briefly assessed using pattern correlation and qualitative associations with an extreme precipitation event climatology. Results show that the EPI may provide potential benefits to flood forecasters, particularly in the 3–10-day range.

Household-level effects of providing forecast-based cash in anticipation of extreme weather events: Quasi-experimental evidence from humanitarian interventions in the 2017 floods in Bangladesh

In 2017, Bangladesh experienced the worst floods in recent decades. Based on a forecast and pre-defined trigger level, a Red Cross Red Crescent project distributed an unconditional cash grant of BDT 5000 (USD 60 equivalent) to 1039 poor households in highly vulnerable, flood-prone communities in the Brahmaputra river basin before an early flood peak. Systems that can deliver forecast-based cash grants are a potential adaptation strategy to deal with changes in extreme events linked to climate change. This paper presents the results of a mixed-methods, quasi-experimental study, based on a post-disaster household survey. The research assesses the effectiveness of the forecast-based cash distribution in helping beneficiaries to take preparatory early actions and reduce the negative impacts of the flood on their health, well-being, assets and livelihoods. The assessment shows that the cash grants contributed to improving households' access to food, a reduction in high-interest debt accrual of vulnerable households, and reduced psychosocial stress during and after the flood period, compared to a control group of similarly vulnerable and flood-affected communities that did not receive the forecast-based cash assistance. The intervention may also have prevented households from being forced to make destitution sales of valuable assets, as indicated by qualitative data collected in July, but we do not see these benefits sustained after a second flood peak in August 2017. There is a need for further research to assess the longer-term effects of forecast-based cash on the socio-economic development and well-being of the most vulnerable.

Taming São Paulo’s floods: Dominant discourses, exclusionary practices, and the complicity of the media

Climate change leads to more frequent and severe flooding, urging cities to adapt to protect their populations and assets. Despite exacerbated hazards, governments repeatedly draw on ‘tried-and-true’ approaches to protect the status quo, often with serious adverse effects for the poor and vulnerable. Yet, such dominant approaches do not go unchallenged as the media and other actors prompt public debate to assess flood impacts, scrutinise government decisions, and perhaps even promote alternative practices. News outlets are not, however, balanced or value-free; the events portrayed and the voices (and knowledges) recognised and included in media coverage deeply influence whether and how flooding is incorporated in policy. Focusing on São Paulo, Brazil, we examine how the media framed flood events and conveyed solutions during the city’s worst floods in recorded history. We demonstrate how competing media outlets largely depicted flooding as a natural phenomenon to be solved by governments and experts through existing techno-managerial practices, mirroring governmental partisan plans for adaptive action. In doing so, the media failed to offer a democratic space for public discussion, citizen contestation, and the advancement of alternative trajectories for adaptation. We posit that inclusive trajectories that address entrenched vulnerabilities and projected climate change will benefit from rigorous ethical debates around the media’s role in disaster coverage while strategically leveraging alternative media outlets as public pedagogy and agenda-setting tools.

Space-based monitoring of severe flooding of a southern state in India during south-west monsoon season of 2018

Kerala, a southern state of India, experienced a severe flooding due to multi-day extreme rain events during July and August months of 2018. This disaster was one of the worst floods to hit the state and resulted in heavy losses of lives and property. Natural Disaster Management Authority of India reported that 483 people lost their lives and more than 50 lakhs population were affected severely. This short communication focuses on examining this flood event using satellite remote sensing. It is reported that Kerala received an excess of about 56% rainfall during July and August from multi-day extreme rainfall episodes. Few regions of Kerala received the rainfall in the range of 270–300 mm on August 14 and 15. Hourly rainfall events in the excess of 25 mm have also been reported during heavy rainy days. The present study reports that multi-day heavy rainy events during July and August brought an accumulated rainfall of about 1600 mm, which resulted in extreme flooding over Kerala.

“Operation:Navajeevan”: Novel PPP Model Flood Relief Camp

Introduction:In August 2018, Kerala, India witnessed its worst flood in over a century. With the support of the national health mission, Operation Navajeevan, a public-private partnership between the district health administration and local hospitals was established in Kozhikode to provide medical aid to flood victims. This study identifies prerequisites, describes challenges, and depicts the epidemiology of patients seen in these camps.Aim:1.Identify prerequisites and medical needs/challenges faced by medical relief camps in a flood-affected region2.Formulate protocols to avoid duplication of services3.Prepare an ideal PPP emergency medical camp modelMethods:A control center with drugs and a logistics unit was set up at the district administration to monitor and supervise various camps. A mobile medical documentation format was created to record the details of each camp. Cases of patients seen at these camps were compiled and later analyzed. The medical officer sent reports from each camp to the control center each day to specify the daily difficulties faced by each camp. Mobile ICUs were kept on standby to respond in the event of emergent circumstances or surge demands. Transfer protocol and treatment guidelines were formulated and standardized.Results:Over two weeks, approximately 40,000 patients were seen in 280 medical camps. Major medical issues included exacerbation of chronic illnesses due to loss of medications (18,490), acute respiratory infections (7,451), psychiatric illnesses (5,327), trauma (3,736), skin infection (792), tropical fever (498), acute gastroenteritis (394), and ACS (17). Of the cases of fever, 137 people had leptospirosis. Major challenges included a lack of training in disaster management and failure of documentation systems.Discussion:A well-organized control center, improved training in disaster medicine, and reliable documentation systems are crucial for coordinating medical camps in disaster areas. Public-private partnerships offer a model for providing medical relief in disaster settings.

A Rapid Response Survey to Characterize the Impacts of the 2017 High Water Event on Lake Ontario

AbstractIn the spring and summer of 2017, communities along the Lake Ontario shoreline suffered from the worst flood event on record. In late May, daily water levels reached their highest point in over 100 years, and flooding continued throughout much of the summer as lake levels slowly declined, with inundation and erosion significantly impacting shoreline homes and businesses. In this work, we present results from a rapid response online survey of property owners along the New York Lake Ontario shoreline to quantify the perceived flood impacts of the 2017 extended high water event. The survey focused on the degree and spatial distribution of inundation and erosion; the duration and drivers of inundation; the associated damages to different property features, with an emphasis on shoreline protection; and the degree of disruption to business and other activities and services. Photographic documentation of inundation extent and property damage also was provided by survey respondents. We demonstrate the potential utility of this dataset by characterizing key features of inundation and erosion impacts across the shoreline, and by using classification and regression trees to explore the predictability of inundation and erosion based on property characteristics. This work is part of a larger effort to develop models of inundation and erosion that can support flood impact assessments across the shoreline and help communities better prepare for future extended high water events.

Impacts of flood disasters in Nigeria: A critical evaluation of health implications and management.

Floods lead to tremendous losses of property, infrastructure, business and increased risk of diseases. Floods are also the most frequent natural disasters, affecting over 2.8 billion people in the world and causing over 200 000 deaths over the past three decades. The World Health Organization categorised the 2012 flood disaster in Nigeria as the worst flood to have hit the country in the past 50 years. This study reviews flood disasters in Nigeria and how they have been managed over the past two decades. The extensive review of the literature is complemented by data obtained from Ajegunle, a community in Ajeromi–Ifelodun Local Government Area. Because of its proximity to water bodies, its large population and its small land mass, the Ajegunle community is highly susceptible to floods and outbreaks of waterborne diseases. The study also discusses the institutionalisation and development of disaster management in Nigeria. Further, it critically evaluates the disaster management framework and other current disaster management policies as well as the effectiveness and functions of the disaster management focus areas and government response. The study takes a historic approach to flood disasters, linking disaster management to human health with a special focus on flood-related infectious diseases, isolating waterborne diseases as being predominant. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected to develop an understanding of how the people of Ajegunle are affected by flood disasters. This study reveals poorly managed health reforms and argues that in spite of government’s disaster management policies, there is an absence of organised and coordinated institutional structures to plan and respond to flood emergencies. It also revealed that diarrhoea outbreak was the predominant waterborne disease associated with flood disasters. Although Lagos State has been said to have the best flood preparedness plan in Nigeria, it has failed to reduce the yearly flood disasters and their impact on the health of the people. The article suggests a holistic approach by the government to get stakeholders, especially the health sector, more actively involved in disaster management planning.Keywordsdisaster management; floods; waterborne diseases; Ajegunle; Lagos; Nigeria.

Could computers provide short-term warnings of the world’s worst floods?

Could computers provide short-term warnings of the world’s worst floods?

Postflood morbidity pattern in flood-affected population of Alappuzha district in Kerala

Background: Kerala had witnessed what is seen as the century’s worst flood in the state in 2018. The torrential rain since June 1 in sporadic places and continuous rain since August first week had created havoc in the state. The spread of infectious disease is likely to occur where such disasters occur. Timely interventions can curtail a second disaster arising out of such circumstances. Materials and Methods: Records of health camps conducted were analyzed to get an idea about the morbidity patterns immediately after floods. Results: Acute respiratory infection accounted for a majority of the cases, both among adults (40.2%) and children (55.6%) followed by generalized weakness and musculoskeletal pain. Conclusion: Most of the illnesses seen were of infectious origin. Health education can play an important role to prevent spread.

Floods and Spillovers: Households after the 2011 Great Flood in Thailand

In 2011, Thailand experienced its worst flooding in decades; it caused widespread damages, and a considerable loss of life. Using data from the Thai Household Socio-Economic Survey (THSES), this paper analyses its economic impacts. In the 2012 THSES, households answered a set of questions on the extent of flooding they experienced in the 12 months prior. As the same households are followed over time, the timing of the survey and its panel structure allows us to analyse household welfare before and after the flood, for both affected households and for those who were not directly flooded. We can thus measure the true impact of the disaster on income, expenditure, assets, debt and savings levels as well as labour market outcomes. We analyse flood impacts across different socio-economic groups and livelihoods, and identify spillover effects on those households that were not directly affected by the flooding.

Impact of Malaysia major flood to river geomorphology changes and total suspended solid using GIS technique

Flood is the most common type of disaster in Peninsular Malaysia. In December 2014, a major flood event occurred in Pahang River that recorded the worst flood ever hit Pahang River Basin and Malaysia generally. Twelve sampling station has been chosen which covered of upstream, middle stream and downstream parts of Pahang River. This study focuses on scrutinizing the processes of the river geomorphology changes using geographic information system and other techniques. Those stations are Jerantut Feri, JPS Tembeling, Chenor and Pekan. The 3D modelling surface showed that the bathymetric shape of Pahang River bed was severely affected by the flood due to collapse of river banks, land use changes and anthropogenic activities. However, other stations are also affected by the flood but it is not significant according to cluster group constructed. Total suspended solid was classified into three group using cluster analysis. The contributors of sedimentation problems in Pahang River are from unsustainable land use such as urbanization, agricultural activities, industrialization which are trapping the bed sediments and river band erosion caused by flood phenomenon. Sinuosity index (SI) of Pahang River shows that high percentage of changes occurred in the upstream at Tembeling River and Jelai River with the highest percentage recorded at 45%. SI recorded at middle stream shows a significant change with the percentage of 20.7%. While at downstream, the SI recorded three significant changes from 16.0% to 20.3%. Based on statistical analysis, significant changes with moderate correlation in R squared value at R2 = 0.6669 was obtained between SI changes and water level that occurred from 2010 to 2015. Pahang River geomorphology change analysis and river bed geometric analysis are very important in order to decide the best mitigating measure and management plan that will overcome the biggest problem of Pahang River, that is, flood – that occurs every year. Generally, this study is very important to gather information on the effect of 2014 major flood in Pahang River in order to manage the Basin of Tropical River. In future, for mitigation measure, alternative management is proposed for Pahang River Maintenance such as service of natural flood ponds and flood mitigation projects.