Worm Viability Research Articles

The Wolbachia endosymbiont as an anti-filarial nematode target

Human disease caused by parasitic filarial nematodes is a major cause of global morbidity. The parasites are transmitted by arthropod intermediate hosts and are responsible for lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) or onchocerciasis (river blindness). Within these filarial parasites are intracellular alpha-proteobacteria, Wolbachia, that were first observed almost 30 years ago. The obligate endosymbiont has been recognized as a target for anti-filarial nematode chemotherapy as evidenced by the loss of worm fertility and viability upon antibiotic treatment in an extensive series of human trials. While current treatments with doxycycline and rifampicin are not practical for widespread use due to the length of required treatments and contraindications, anti-Wolbachia targeting nevertheless appears a promising alternative for filariasis control in situations where current programmatic strategies fail or are unable to be delivered and it provides a superior efficacy for individual therapy. The mechanisms that underlie the symbiotic relationship between Wolbachia and its nematode hosts remain elusive. Comparative genomics, bioinfomatic and experimental analyses have identified a number of potential interactions, which may be drug targets. One candidate is de novo heme biosynthesis, due to its absence in the genome sequence of the host nematode, Brugia malayi, but presence in Wolbachia and its potential roles in worm biology. We describe this and several additional candidate targets, as well as our approaches for understanding the nature of the host-symbiont relationship.

Macrofilaricidal Activity after Doxycycline Only Treatment of Onchocerca volvulus in an Area of Loa loa Co-Endemicity: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BackgroundThe risk of severe adverse events following treatment of onchocerciasis with ivermectin in areas co-endemic with loiasis currently compromises the development of control programmes and the treatment of co-infected individuals. We therefore assessed whether doxycycline treatment could be used without subsequent ivermectin administration to effectively deliver sustained effects on Onchocerca volvulus microfilaridermia and adult viability. Furthermore we assessed the safety of doxycycline treatment prior to ivermectin administration in a subset of onchocerciasis individuals co-infected with low to moderate intensities of Loa loa microfilaraemia.MethodsA double-blind, randomized, field trial was conducted of 6 weeks of doxycycline (200 mg/day) alone, doxycycline in combination with ivermectin (150 µg/kg) at +4 months or placebo matching doxycycline + ivermectin at +4 months in 150 individuals infected with Onchocerca volvulus. A further 22 individuals infected with O. volvulus and low to moderate intensities of Loa loa infection were administered with a course of 6 weeks doxycycline with ivermectin at +4 months. Treatment efficacy was determined at 4, 12 and 21 months after the start of doxycycline treatment together with the frequency and severity of adverse events.ResultsOne hundred and four (60.5%) participants completed all treatment allocations and follow up assessments over the 21-month trial period. At 12 months, doxycycline/ivermectin treated individuals had lower levels of microfilaridermia and higher frequency of amicrofilaridermia compared with ivermectin or doxycycline only groups. At 21 months, microfilaridermia in doxycycline/ivermectin and doxycycline only groups was significantly reduced compared to the ivermectin only group. 89% of the doxycycline/ivermectin group and 67% of the doxycycline only group were amicrofilaridermic, compared with 21% in the ivermectin only group. O. volvulus from doxycycline groups were depleted of Wolbachia and all embryonic stages in utero. Notably, the viability of female adult worms was significantly reduced in doxycycline treated groups and the macrofilaricidal and sterilising activity was unaffected by the addition of ivermectin. Treatment with doxycycline was well tolerated and the incidence of adverse event to doxycycline or ivermectin did not significantly deviate between treatment groups.ConclusionsA six-week course of doxycycline delivers macrofilaricidal and sterilizing activities, which is not dependent upon co-administration of ivermectin. Doxycycline is well tolerated in patients co-infected with moderate intensities of L. loa microfilariae. Therefore, further trials are warranted to assess the safety and efficacy of doxycycline-based interventions to treat onchocerciasis in individuals at risk of serious adverse reactions to standard treatments due to the co-occurrence of high intensities of L. loa parasitaemias. The development of an anti-wolbachial treatment regime compatible with MDA control programmes could offer an alternative to the control of onchocerciasis in areas of co-endemicity with loiasis and at risk of severe adverse reactions to ivermectin.Trial RegistrationControlled-Trials.com ISRCTN48118452

In vitro schistosomicidal effects of some phloroglucinol derivatives from Dryopteris species against Schistosoma mansoni adult worms

The rhizomes of Dryopteris species have popularly been used as vermifuge in flatworm infections. The aim of this work was to evaluate the in vitro schistosomicidal activity of some phloroglucinol compounds, obtained from the rhizomes of Dryopteris species, against Schistosoma mansoni adult worms. All worm pairs were dead after 24 h of incubation with aspidin 25 to 100 microM (1), flavaspidic acid 50 and 100 microM (2), methylene-bis-aspidinol 100 microM (3), and desaspidin 25 to 100 microM (4). Worms incubated with 1 (25 to 100 microM) and 2 (50 to 100 microM) showed decrease motor activity with tegumental alterations, while 3 (100 microM) and 4 (10 to 100 microM) showed decrease motor activity without tegumental alterations. Desaspidinol (5) and filicinic acid (6), at the tested concentrations (10 to 100 microM), did not show activity against adult worms of S. mansoni. Praziquantel (10 microM), used as positive control, caused death of the parasites and tegumental alterations without separation of worms. In the groups treated with 100 microM of compounds 1-4, the viability of the adult worms was similar to the positive control group, in which the worms were dead. Also, both the egg productions and the development of eggs produced by the adult worms were inhibited by the incubation with compounds 1-4 (10 and 100 microM) in comparison with the negative control (RPMI 1640 medium). It is suggested that the in vitro schistosomicidal effects of phloroglucinols derivatives 1, 2, 3, and 4 may be related to the inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation pathway in S. mansoni. The present results confirmed the traditional indications of rhizomes from Dryopteris species, which possess phloroglucinol compounds, in the treatment of tapeworm infections.

Comparison of motility, recovery, and methyl-thiazolyl-tetrazolium reduction assays for use in screening plant products for anthelmintic activity

The primary objective of these experiments was to compare the effectiveness of motility, recovery, and methyl-thiazolyl-tetrazolium (MTT) reduction assays for determining anthelmintic activity of plant extracts and purified compounds from these extracts. Caenorhabditis elegans was used as the test organism. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) grade water and M9 medium were used as the solvents. Copper, a common metal pollutant, and the anthelmintic drug levamisole were used as reference compounds. Extracts from the West African plant Anogeissus leiocarpus, which is used to treat worm infections, as well as two active compounds found in this plant, gallic and gentisic acids, were included in this comparison. MTT assay results for viability of worms were significantly lower (p < 0.01) than motility and recovery assay results. However, both gallic acid and the plant extract, in the absence of worms, caused reduction of MTT. Worm survival for levamisole using M9 medium was significantly (p < 0.01) higher than for HPLC grade water for all three methods. On the other hand, gallic acid showed significant (p < 0.05) activity in M9 medium but no activity in HPLC grade water, whereas gentisic acid was effective in HPLC grade water but had no activity in M9 medium. Activity of the A. leiocarpus extract also varied with solvent. In conclusion, plant extracts can be screened using motility assays that include both HPLC grade water and M9 salts.

The Heme Biosynthetic Pathway of the Obligate Wolbachia Endosymbiont of Brugia malayi as a Potential Anti-filarial Drug Target

BackgroundFilarial parasites (e.g., Brugia malayi, Onchocerca volvulus, and Wuchereria bancrofti) are causative agents of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis, which are among the most disabling of neglected tropical diseases. There is an urgent need to develop macro-filaricidal drugs, as current anti-filarial chemotherapy (e.g., diethylcarbamazine [DEC], ivermectin and albendazole) can interrupt transmission predominantly by killing microfilariae (mf) larvae, but is less effective on adult worms, which can live for decades in the human host. All medically relevant human filarial parasites appear to contain an obligate endosymbiotic bacterium, Wolbachia. This alpha-proteobacterial mutualist has been recognized as a potential target for filarial nematode life cycle intervention, as antibiotic treatments of filarial worms harboring Wolbachia result in the loss of worm fertility and viability upon antibiotic treatments both in vitro and in vivo. Human trials have confirmed this approach, although the length of treatments, high doses required and medical counter-indications for young children and pregnant women warrant the identification of additional anti-Wolbachia drugs.Methods and FindingsGenome sequence analysis indicated that enzymes involved in heme biosynthesis might constitute a potential anti-Wolbachia target set. We tested different heme biosynthetic pathway inhibitors in ex vivo B. malayi viability assays and report a specific effect of N-methyl mesoporphyrin (NMMP), which targets ferrochelatase (FC, the last step). Our phylogenetic analysis indicates evolutionarily significant divergence between Wolbachia heme genes and their human homologues. We therefore undertook the cloning, overexpression and analysis of several enzymes of this pathway alongside their human homologues, and prepared proteins for drug targeting. In vitro enzyme assays revealed a ∼600-fold difference in drug sensitivities to succinyl acetone (SA) between Wolbachia and human 5′-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD, the second step). Similarly, Escherichia coli hemH (FC) deficient strains transformed with human and Wolbachia FC homologues showed significantly different sensitivities to NMMP. This approach enables functional complementation in E. coli heme deficient mutants as an alternative E. coli-based method for drug screening.ConclusionsOur studies indicate that the heme biosynthetic genes in the Wolbachia of B. malayi (wBm) might be essential for the filarial host survival. In addition, the results suggest they are likely candidate drug targets based upon significant differences in phylogenetic distance, biochemical properties and sensitivities to heme biosynthesis inhibitors, as compared to their human homologues.

Two novel phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase genes ofParagonimus westermaniinduced by oxidative stress

Phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx; GPx4) plays unique roles in the protection of cells against oxidative stress by catalysing reduction of lipid hydroperoxides. We characterized 2 novel GPx genes from a lung fluke, Paragonimus westermani (designated PwGPx1 and PwGPx2). These single copy genes spanned 6559 and 12 371 bp, respectively, and contained each of 5 intervening introns. The PwGPx2 harboured a codon for Sec and a Sec insertion sequence motif. Proteins encoded by the Paragonimus genes demonstrated a primary structure characteristic to the PHGPx family, including preservation of catalytic and glutathione-binding domains and absence of the subunit interaction domain. Expression of PwGPx1 increased gradually as the parasite matured, whereas that of PwGPx2 was temporally regulated. PwGPx2 was expressed at the basal level from the metacercariae to the 3-week-old juveniles; however, the expression was significantly induced in the 7-week-old immature worms and reached a plateau in the 12-week-old adults and eggs. PwGPx1 and PwGPx2 were largely localized in vitellocytes within vitelline glands and eggs. Oxidative stress-inducible paraquat, juglone and H2O2 substantially augmented the PwGPx1 and PwGPx2 expressions in viable worms by 1.5- to 11-fold. Our results strongly suggested that PwGPxs may actively participate in detoxification of oxidative hazards in P. westermani.

In vitro schistosomicidal activity of curcumin against Schistosoma mansoni adult worms

The in vitro schistosomicidal activity of curcumin (doses ranging from 5 to 100 microM) was carried out against Schistosoma mansoni adult worms. Curcumin (at 50 and 100 microM) caused death of all worms. When tested at the doses of 5 and 20 microM, it decreased the worm viability in comparison with negative (Roswell Memorial Park Institute (RPMI) 1640 medium alone or RPMI 1640 medium with 10% dimethyl sulfoxide) and positive (heat-killed worms at 56 degrees C or praziquantel 10 microM) control groups. All pairs of coupled adult worms were separated into individual male and female by the action of curcumin at the doses of 20 to 100 microM. When tested at 5 and 10 microM, curcumin reduced egg production by 50% in comparison with the positive control group. It is the first time that the schistosomicidal activity has been reported for curcumin.

Brugia malayi: Effects of nitazoxanide and tizoxanide on adult worms and microfilariae of filarial nematodes

There is an urgent need for safe and effective antifilarials. Prior studies have shown that the nitazoxanide (NTZ) exhibits broad activity against anaerobic bacteria, protozoa, and certain intestinal helminths. We examined the effects of NTZ and tizoxanide (TZ) on Brugia malayi nematodes in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, NTZ and TZ reduced worm motility and viability in a dose-dependent manner. Worm viability was reduced by 50% with both compounds at 2.5 and 20 μg/ml killed adult worms. NTZ or TZ (5 μg/ml) significantly reduced microfilaria release. These compounds blocked worm’s embryogenesis, and decreased microfilarial motility and viability. Treated worms had damaged cuticles and abnormal mitochondria. Wolbachia were not cleared by NTZ or TZ treatment. Neither NTZ nor TZ cleared adult worms or microfilariae in infected gerbils. These results show that NTZ and TZ have potent effects on B. malayi nematodes in vitro. However, they were not effective in vivo.

UMF-078: A modified flubendazole with potent macrofilaricidal activity against Onchocerca ochengi in African cattle

BackgroundHuman onchocerciasis or river blindness, caused by the filarial nematode Onchocerca volvulus, is currently controlled using the microfilaricidal drug, ivermectin. However, ivermectin does not kill adult O. volvulus, and in areas with less than 65% ivermectin coverage of the population, there is no effect on transmission. Therefore, there is still a need for a macrofilaricidal drug. Using the bovine filarial nematode O. ochengi (found naturally in African cattle), the macrofilaricidal efficacy of the modified flubendazole, UMF-078, was investigated.MethodsGroups of 3 cows were treated with one of the following regimens: (a) a single dose of UMF-078 at 150 mg/kg intramuscularly (im), (b) 50 mg/kg im, (c) 150 mg/kg intraabomasally (ia), (d) 50 mg/kg ia, or (e) not treated (controls).ResultsAfter treatment at 150 mg/kg im, nodule diameter, worm motility and worm viability (as measured by metabolic reduction of tetrazolium to formazan) declined significantly compared with pre-treatment values and concurrent controls. There was abrogation of embryogenesis and death of all adult worms by 24 weeks post-treatment (pt). Animals treated at 50 mg/kg im showed a decline in nodule diameter together with abrogated reproduction, reduced motility, and lower metabolic activity in isolated worms, culminating in approximately 50% worm mortality by 52 weeks pt. Worms removed from animals treated ia were not killed, but exhibited a temporary embryotoxic effect which had waned by 12 weeks pt in the 50 mg/kg ia group and by 24 weeks pt in the 150 mg/kg ia group. These differences could be explained by the different absorption rates and elimination half-lives for each dose and route of administration.ConclusionAlthough we did not observe any signs of mammalian toxicity in this trial with a single dose, other studies have raised concerns regarding neuro- and genotoxicity. Consequently, further evaluation of this compound has been suspended. Nonetheless, these results validate the molecular target of the benzimidazoles as a promising lead for rational design of macrofilaricidal drugs.

Vitellocyte-specific expression of phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidases in Clonorchis sinensis

Phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx) is a major antioxidant enzyme and may protect against lipid hydroperoxidation in biomembranes. We isolated full-length cDNA sequences encoding four different PHGPxs from a causative agent of cholangiocarcinoma, Clonorchis sinensis (CsGPx1, CsGPx2, CsGPx3 and CsGPx4). These sequences contained an in-frame TGA codon for selenocysteine (Sec) and a concurrent Sec insertion sequence in their 3′-untranslated regions. The open reading frames were composed of six exons in the chromosomal segments of CsGPx1 (7705bp), CsGPx2 (5871bp) and CsGPx3 (3867bp) and five exons in CsGPx4 (5655bp). The positions of these introns were tightly conserved between the trematode and vertebrate PHGPx genes. Oxidative stimulation of viable worms with H2O2 or paraquat resulted in 1.5- to 2-fold induction of the GPx activity. The CsGPx proteins were specifically localised in vitellocytes within vitelline follicles and premature eggs in the proximal uterus. In the eggs, glutathione, an electron donor for GPx, was co-localised with the CsGPx proteins, while thioredoxin, which is preferred by peroxiredoxin, was principally detected in the extracellular space between the embryonic cell mass and an eggshell. Our data may suggest a concerted or a specialised function between a thioredoxin-dependent enzyme(s) and GPx in protecting against H2O2-derived damage during maturation of the embryo and formation of the eggshell, in these catalase-lacking trematode parasites. The uniquely conserved genomic organisation and Sec-dependency amongst trematode and vertebrate PHGPx homologues will also provide insight into the evolutionary episode and functional/biochemical diversification of GPx proteins.

Immunization against Egyptian &amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;Schistosoma mansoni&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; infection by multivalent DNA vaccine

The development of multivalent vaccines consisting of several antigens is a novel approach to creating broad-range protection against different parasite strains and parasite life cycle stages. We have previously confirmed that the schistosome Sm21.7 and SmFimbrin (SmFim) proteins could induce protection in mice. Therefore, this study aimed to construct the multivalent DNA vaccine Sm21.7-SmFim/pBudCE4.1 and evaluate its immune efficacy. The open reading frames of two Schistosoma mansoni genes, Sm21.7 and SmFim, were inserted into the eukaryotic expression plasmid pBudCE4.1 designed for the independent expression of two genes in mammalian cells. To evaluate the in vitro expression of the multivalent Sm21.7-SmFim/pBudCE4.1 DNA vaccine and its immunological effect in mice, the recombinant plasmid Sm21.7-SmFim/pBudCE4.1 was used to transfect 293T cells, and the expression of mRNA and proteins was examined using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. Then the ability of Sm21.7-SmFim/pBudCE4.1 to protect against S. mansoni challenge infections was analyzed according to worm burden and egg reduction rates after vaccination of mice. Vaccinated mice showed a significant level of protection (56%), and a decrease in the number and size, and change in the cellular profile, of granulomas. Egg reduction in liver and intestine was 41.53% and 55.63%, respectively, as determined relative to mice that received the empty vector only. In addition to reductions in worm viability, worm fecundity and egg hatching ability were observed following challenge infection in the immunized group. Results showed that Sm21.7-SmFim/pBudCE4.1 could express Sm21.7 and SmFim mRNA and proteins. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot analysis indicated that immunized mice generated specific immunoglobulin G against Sm21.7-SmFim/pBudCE4.1. These results suggest that vaccination with multivalent S. mansoni DNA vaccine (SmFim-Sm21.7/pBudCE4.1) not only induces a significant reduction in worm and egg burdens, but also significantly reduces the size of egg granulomas. In summary, the multivalent vaccine stimulated specific immunity with a significant level of protection and has anti-pathological effect.

Fasciola gigantica: Evaluation of the effect of phenyl vinyl sulfone in vitro

Phenyl vinyl sulfone is a synthetic inhibitor of cysteine protease and has antihelminthic and antiprotozoal properties. Phenyl vinyl sulfone was assayed in vitro for antifasciola activity against adult Fasciola gigantica worms using a well-established culture medium. Worms were treated with phenyl vinyl sulfone for incubation periods ranging from 0 to 12h and its activity was assessed in terms of viability, motility and death of worms. Phenyl vinyl sulfone exhibited a minimum effective concentration of 50ppm after 12h. Three hundred parts per million concentrations were most potent causing immediate death of adult flukes in vitro. Histopathological studies showed that there was tegumental flattening, rupture of vesicles, and spine loss. Marked reduction in size and number of ova and sperms in the convoluted tubules of the reproductive organs was observed in comparison to the untreated control group. In conclusion, phenyl vinyl sulfone shows potent activity against F. gigantica in vitro, and the authors recommend carrying out more studies to detect its efficacy in vivo.

Natural death of adult Onchocerca volvulus and filaricidal effects of doxycycline induce local FOXP3+/CD4+ regulatory T cells and granzyme expression

Immunosuppression in human filarial disease involves regulatory T cells. We hypothesized that natural or worm antigen-induced FOXP3 regulatory T cells could be involved locally, suppressing effector cells via granzymes. Natural and treatment-induced death of worms implies enhanced exposure to worm antigens. Therefore, we examined FOXP3+ T cells and granzyme expression in onchocercomas harbouring adult Onchocerca volvulus worms, with respect to worm viability, productivity, the patient's immune status and filaricidal treatment. The immunohistological analysis revealed that dead adult worms were strongly associated with FOXP3+ T cells in generalized hyporeactive onchocerciasis. FOXP3+ cells hardly expressed granzymes, but cell contacts with granzyme A+ or B+ cells were frequent. While suramin directly kills most adult worms within 6 months, the Wolbachia depleting antibiotic doxycycline indirectly causes adult worm degeneration within 18 months. Contrary to suramin, depletion of Th1-driving endobacteria most strongly promoted FOXP3+ T cells and granzyme-expressing cells. In hyperreactive patients, FOXP3+ cells were less frequent. This is the first demonstration of local FOXP3+ Treg cells in human filariasis and their induction by natural worm death and anti-parasitic treatment. We newly report granzyme responses to helminths and their association with immunosuppression. FOXP3+ Treg and granzyme+ cells might locally suppress defence against newly acquired worms.

A hydrophobic ligand‐binding protein of the Taenia solium metacestode mediates uptake of the host lipid: Implication for the maintenance of parasitic cellular homeostasis

Parasitic organisms are incapable of de novo fatty acid synthesis due to a down-regulated expression of enzymes involved in the oxygen-dependent pathway. We investigated the uptake of host lipids by a 150-kDa hydrophobic ligand-binding protein (HLBP) of Taenia solium metacestode, an agent causative of neurocysticercosis. The protein was found to be a hetero-oligomeric complex consisting of multiple subunits (M(r) 7, 10, and 15 kDa within pH 8.0-9.7), which may originate from four unique genes of 7- and 10-kDa gene families with 2-3 polymorphic alleles/paralogs. The 15-kDa protein represented glycosylated forms of the 10-kDa. With high binding affinity to lipid analogs, these subunits evidenced high-level sequence identity with other cestode HLBPs and form a novel clade associated with excretory-secretory type HLBP. In vitro experiments with viable worms suggested that the excreted 150-kDa protein might bind to lipids, and participate in the translocation of host lipids across the syncytial membrane. This process was substantially inhibited by the specific anti-150 kDa antibodies. The protein was localized in the parasite syncytium and in the lipid droplets within host granuloma wall, where significant lipase activity was expressed. HLBP-mediated uptake of the host lipid may be critical for the parasite survival and thus could be targeted by chemotherapeutics and/or vaccine.

A rapid colorimetric assay for the quantitation of the viability of free-living larvae of nematodes in vitro

With increasing drug resistance in gastrointestinal parasites, identification of new anthelmintics is essential. The non-parasitic nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is used extensively as a model to identify drug targets and potential novel anthelmintics because it can be readily cultured in vitro. Traditionally, the assessment of worm viability has relied on labour-intensive developmental and behavioral assays. The 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide-formazan (MTT-formazan) colorimetric assay uses metabolic activity as a marker of viability in mammalian cell culture systems and has been applied for use with filarial nematodes. In the present study, this assay has been optimized and validated to rapidly assess the viability of C. elegans after drug treatment. Living, but not dead, C. elegans take up MTT and reduce it to the blue formazan, providing visual, qualitative, and quantitative assessment of viability. MTT at a concentration of 5 mg/ml with 3 h incubation was optimal for detecting changes in viability with drug treatment. We have applied this assay to quantitate the effects of ivermectin and short-chain alcohols on the viability of C. elegans. This assay is also applicable to first-stage larvae of the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus. The advantage of this assay is the rapid quantitation in screening drugs to identify potential anthelmintics.

Large-scale in Vitro. Screening of Egyptian Native and Cultivated Plants for Schistosomicidal Activity

In vitro. bioassay screening of 346 methanol extracts originated from 281 native and cultivated plant species growing in Egypt, and related to 81 families, was carried out for schistosomicidal activity. The extracts were bioassayed at 100 µg/mL on viable Schistosoma mansoni. mature worms in culture medium. Viability of worms was examined after exposure for 24 h, and mortality determined. Negative (DMSO) and positive (praziquantel) controls were used. Of the tested plant extracts, 72 were found to possess reproducible in vitro. antischistosomal activity. These active extracts were further subjected to determination of their LC50 and LC90 values. Strong antischistosomal activity was found in the extracts of 15 species (possessing LC50 ≤ 15 µg/mL), viz. Agave americana. L. var. marginata. Trel. (Agavaceae), A. lophantha. Schiede (Agavaceae), Furcraea selloa. C.Koch. (Agavaceae), Calotropis procera. (Aiton) W.T.Aiton (Asclepiadaceae), Pergularia tomentosa. L. (Asclepiadaceae), Asclepias sinaica. (Boiss.) Muschl. (Asclepiadaceae), Alkanna orientalis. (L.) Boiss. (Boraginaceae), Khaya grandifoliola. DC. (Meliaceae), Swietenia mahogani. (L.) Jacq. (Meliaceae), Pimenta racemosa. (Mill.) J.W.Moore (Myrtaceae), Pinus canariensis. C.Sm. (Pinaceae), Verbascum sinaiticum. L. (Scrophulariaceae), Solanum elaeagnifolium. Cav. (Solanaceae), S. nigrum. L. (Solanaceae), and Brachychiton rupestris. (Lindl.) K.Schum. (Sterculiaceae). These 15 species could represent promising bioactive sources that deserve further investigation, with the aim of finding novel antischistosomal agents. The current study represents the first report on a systematic screening of schistosomicidal activity utilizing a large number of plant species.

A Multienzyme Network Functions in Intestinal Protein Digestion by a Platyhelminth Parasite

Proteases frequently function not only as individual enzymes but also in cascades or networks. A notable evolutionary switch occurred in one such protease network that is involved in protein digestion in the intestine. In vertebrates, this is largely the work of trypsin family serine proteases, whereas in invertebrates, cysteine proteases of the papain family and aspartic proteases assume the role. Utilizing a combination of protease class-specific inhibitors and RNA interference, we deconvoluted such a network of major endopeptidases functioning in invertebrate intestinal protein digestion, using the parasitic helminth, Schistosoma mansoni as an experimental model. We show that initial degradation of host blood proteins is ordered, occasionally redundant, and substrate-specific. Although inhibition of parasite cathepsin D had a greater effect on primary cleavage of hemoglobin, inhibition of cathepsin B predominated in albumin degradation. Nevertheless, in both cases, inhibitor combinations were synergistic. An asparaginyl endopeptidase (legumain) also synergized with cathepsin B and L in protein digestion, either by zymogen activation or facilitating substrate cleavage. This protease network operates optimally in acidic pH compartments either in the gut lumen or in vacuoles of the intestinal lining cells. Defining the role of each of these major enzymes now provides a clearer understanding of the function of a complex protease network that is conserved throughout invertebrate evolution. It also provides insights into which of these proteases are logical targets for development of chemotherapy for schistosomiasis, a major global health problem.

5(6)-Carboxyfluorescein diacetate as an indicator of Caenorhabditis elegans viability for the development of an in vitro anthelmintic drug assay

A new in vitro assay for anthelmintic activity using Caenorhabditis elegans is based on the ability of 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate (CFDA) to indicate the worm's viability. It is shown for the first time that the treatment of a suspension of worms with a solution of 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate (4.2%) for 30 min transiently induces fluorescence in dead worms only, allowing a fast and efficient determination of the proportion of dead worms by fluorescence microscopy. The proposed test has been validated using mixtures of populations of living and killed C. elegans and proved to be selective, linear in the range 0–100%, accurate and precise. The suitability of the assay to detect anthelmintic activity was then evaluated by studying the toxicity against C. elegans of a series of known anthelmintic compounds (mebendazole, levamisole, niclosamide, pyrantel, piperazine, and thiabendazole) with various modes of action. The worms were exposed to each drug at two concentrations, 50 and 100 μg/ml for piperazine, niclosamide, pyrantel and 5 and 10 μg/ml for the others. We observed that, in the tested range of doses, piperazine and niclosamide were only moderately toxic, yielding 13.1 and 17.5% of dead worms; due to their mode of action and/or specificity, the low toxicity of these compounds was as expected. The marked activities of all the other compound fully agree with those described in the literature and obtained by other more laborious techniques. These validation data indicate that the proposed in vitro anthelmintic assay using 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate allows for sensitive measurement of worm viability.

A Deletion in the Golgi α-Mannosidase II Gene of Caenorhabditis elegans Results in Unexpected Non-wild-type N-Glycan Structures

The processing of N-linked oligosaccharides by alpha-mannosidases in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi is a process conserved in plants and animals. After the transfer of a GlcNAc residue to Asn-bound Man(5)GlcNAc(2) by N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I, an alpha-mannosidase (EC 3.2.1.114) removes one alpha1,3-linked and one alpha1,6-linked mannose residue. In this study, we have identified the relevant alpha-mannosidase II gene (aman-2; F58H1.1) from Caenorhabditis elegans and have detected its activity in both native and recombinant forms. For comparative studies, the two other cDNAs encoding class II mannosidases aman-1 (F55D10.1) and aman-3 (F48C1.1) were cloned; the corresponding enzymes are, respectively, a putative lysosomal alpha-mannosidase and a Co(II)-activated alpha-mannosidase. The analysis of the N-glycan structures of an aman-2 mutant strain demonstrates that the absence of alpha-mannosidase II activity results in a shift to structures not seen in wild-type worms (e.g. N-glycans with the composition Hex(5-7)HexNAc(2-3)Fuc(2)Me) and an accumulation of hybrid oligosaccharides. Paucimannosidic glycans are almost absent from aman-2 worms, indicative also of a general lack of alpha-mannosidase III activity. We hypothesize that there is a tremendous flexibility in the glycosylation pathway of C. elegans that does not impinge, under standard laboratory conditions, on the viability of worms with glycotypes very unlike the wild-type pattern.

Defining the Role of Phosphomethylethanolamine N-Methyltransferase from Caenorhabditis elegans in Phosphocholine Biosynthesis by Biochemical and Kinetic Analysis

In plants and Plasmodium falciparum, the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine requires the conversion of phosphoethanolamine to phosphocholine by phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase (PEAMT). This pathway differs from the metabolic route of phosphatidylcholine synthesis used in mammals and, on the basis of bioinformatics, was postulated to function in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Here we describe the cloning and biochemical characterization of a PEAMT from C. elegans (gene, pmt-2; protein, PMT-2). Although similar in size to the PEAMT from plants, which contain two tandem methyltransferase domains, PMT-2 retains only the C-terminal methyltransferase domain. RNA-mediated interference experiments in C. elegans show that PMT-2 is essential for worm viability and that choline supplementation rescues the RNAi-generated phenotype. Unlike the plant and Plasmodium PEAMT, which catalyze all three methylations in the pathway, PMT-2 catalyzes only the last two steps in the pathway, i.e., the methylation of phosphomonomethylethanolamine (P-MME) to phosphodimethylethanolamine (P-DME) and of P-DME to phosphocholine. Analysis of initial velocity patterns suggests a random sequential kinetic mechanism for PMT-2. Product inhibition by S-adenosylhomocysteine was competitive versus S-adenosylmethionine and noncompetitive versus P-DME, consistent with formation of a dead-end complex. Inhibition by phosphocholine was competitive versus each substrate. Fluorescence titrations show that all substrates and products bind to the free enzyme. The biochemical data are consistent with a random sequential kinetic mechanism for PMT-2. This work provides a kinetic basis for additional studies on the reaction mechanism of PEAMT. Our results indicate that nematodes also use the PEAMT pathway for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis. If the essential role of PMT-2 in C. elegans is conserved in parasitic nematodes of mammals and plants, then inhibition of the PEAMT pathway may be a viable approach for targeting these parasites with compounds of medicinal or agronomic value.