World's Mountain Research Articles

A global estimate of carbon stored in the world's mountain grasslands and shrublands, and the implications for climate policy

Carbon market and climate finance schemes (e.g. the CDM, REDD+ and the Green Climate Fund) are being investigated for their ability to achieve enhanced sustainability outcomes in terrestrial forests, lowland grasslands and marine ecosystems, all which store large amounts of carbon (C). To date however climate policy discourse has largely overlooked the conservation of existing C stored in mountain grasslands and shrublands. These ecosystems provide critical ecological goods and services to humanity yet are increasingly at risk from anthropogenic stressors including agricultural intensification, mining and climate change. The absence of a global estimate for these C stocks is likely to be one reason for their exclusion from climate change policy discussions, both on a political and scientific basis. This represents a missed opportunity in two respects: firstly, by conserving and restoring existing C stocks the impacts of climate change can be lessened; and secondly, carbon finance and climate finance might provide the necessary financial support to address the aforementioned stressors. In this paper we use spatial analysis and estimate there to be between 60.5Pg C and 82.8Pg of C contained within biomass and soils of the world's mountain grasslands and shrublands. To put this in perspective, globally tropical Savannas and grasslands, temperate forests and tropical peatlands are estimated to contain 326–330Pg C, 159–292Pg C and 88.6Pg C respectively. Our review of existing empirical studies and of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) national greenhouse accounts suggests that this C is not reliably accounted for in international carbon budgets. Our estimate is the first to provide a global point of reference, useful in developing future research and in climate policy discussions. We conclude by briefly discussing how climate finance might be leveraged to support the sustainable management of these C stocks, and in so doing uphold the other important socioeconomic benefits provided to humanity.

Mountain geography: physical and human dimensions

Mountains cover a quarter of the Earth's land surface and a quarter of the global population lives in or adjacent to these areas. This title gives students a foundation for understanding the geographical processes occurring in the world's mountains and the overall impact of these regions on culture and society as a whole.

Consistent response of vegetation dynamics to recent climate change in tropical mountain regions

Global climate change has emerged as a major driver of ecosystem change. Here, we present evidence for globally consistent responses in vegetation dynamics to recent climate change in the world's mountain ecosystems located in the pan-tropical belt (30°N-30°S). We analyzed decadal-scale trends and seasonal cycles of vegetation greenness using monthly time series of satellite greenness (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and climate data for the period 1982-2006 for 47 mountain protected areas in five biodiversity hotspots. The time series of annual maximum NDVI for each of five continental regions shows mild greening trends followed by reversal to stronger browning trends around the mid-1990s. During the same period we found increasing trends in temperature but only marginal change in precipitation. The amplitude of the annual greenness cycle increased with time, and was strongly associated with the observed increase in temperature amplitude. We applied dynamic models with time-dependent regression parameters to study the time evolution of NDVI-climate relationships. We found that the relationship between vegetation greenness and temperature weakened over time or was negative. Such loss of positive temperature sensitivity has been documented in other regions as a response to temperature-induced moisture stress. We also used dynamic models to extract the trends in vegetation greenness that remain after accounting for the effects of temperature and precipitation. We found residual browning and greening trends in all regions, which indicate that factors other than temperature and precipitation also influence vegetation dynamics. Browning rates became progressively weaker with increase in elevation as indicated by quantile regression models. Tropical mountain vegetation is considered sensitive to climatic changes, so these consistent vegetation responses across widespread regions indicate persistent global-scale effects of climate warming and associated moisture stresses.

Erosion helps keep mountains standing tall

Some of the world's mountain ranges are much taller than they should be for their age – could the erosive forces that should wear them away actually be keeping them high and mighty?

Potential of a neutrino detector in the ANDES underground laboratory for geophysics and astrophysics of neutrinos

The construction of the Agua Negra tunnels that will link Argentina and Chile under the Andes, the world's longest mountain range, opens the possibility of building the first deep underground laboratory in the Southern Hemisphere. This laboratory has the acronym ANDES (Agua Negra Deep Experiment Site) and its overburden could be as large as $\ensuremath{\sim}1.7\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{km}$ of rock, or 4500 mwe, providing an excellent low background environment to study physics of rare events like the ones induced by neutrinos and/or dark matter. In this paper we investigate the physics potential of a few kiloton size liquid scintillator detector, which could be constructed in the ANDES laboratory as one of its possible scientific programs. In particular, we evaluate the impact of such a detector for the studies of geoneutrinos and Galactic supernova neutrinos, assuming a fiducial volume of 3 kilotons as a reference size. We emphasize the complementary roles of such a detector to the ones of the Northern Hemisphere neutrino facilities, given the advantages of its geographical location.

Mapping Direct Human Influence on the World's Mountain Areas

Abstract Mountain areas are of great importance to biodiversity conservation. Also, they have long been reputed as the last remnants of virgin, unspoiled nature. In this paper, we assess the degree of human impact on mountain ecosystems through the Human Influence Index (HII), using it as a proxy to estimate the degree of threat to mountain biodiversity. We also measured how well the least human-influenced mountain areas are protected (HII ≤ 10). Our results show that still-large proportions of mountain areas are under low or moderate human influence, as assessed by the HII. However, these results should be considered carefully, because the HII does not include some important human-made influences affecting mountain ecosystems globally, such as climate change. Finally, 34.7% of the mountain area under low human influence (HII ≤ 10) is currently covered by nationally designated protected areas.

Global Change and the World's Mountains— Research Needs and Emerging Themes for Sustainable Development

Abstract The conference on Global Change and the World's Mountains held in Perth, Scotland, in 2010 offered a unique opportunity to analyze the state and progress of mountain research and its contribution to sustainable mountain development, as well as to reflect on required reorientations of research agendas. In this paper we provide the results of a three-step assessment of the research presented by 450 researchers from around the world. First, we determined the state of the art of mountain research and categorized it based on the analytical structure of the Global Land Project (GLP 2005). Second, we identified emerging themes for future research. Finally, we assessed the contribution of mountain research to sustainable development along the lines of the Grand Challenges in Global Sustainability Research (International Council for Science 2010). Analysis revealed that despite the growing recognition of the importance of more integrative research (inter- and transdisciplinary), the research community gat...

Global Change and the World's Mountains

The history of mountain research is most fascinating. Three names for 3 centuries may give an idea of the growing knowledge about the world's mountains: Horace Bénédict de Saussure, who climbed and studied the Mont Blanc in 1787; Alexander von Humboldt, ever investigating the environment during his attempt to ascend the Chimborazo in 1802; and Carl Troll, who founded the International Geographical Union's Commission on High-altitude Geoecology in 1968. Awareness of the growing impact of human activities on the environment led to scientific and political initiatives at the global level, beginning in the 1970s. The Perth conference in 2010 has offered an opportunity to both look back on these developments and explore the future of the world's mountains in a time of rapidly growing “global change” problems and processes.

Mountain Basal Elevation Extraction in the Taiwan Island

Mountain basal elevation(MBE) is the elevation of the base which mountains uplift from.The variation of MBE affects the redistribution of water and heat conditions in mountain areas,and the structure and distribution of mountain altitudinal belts.But so far,there has been no accurate and scientific concept of MBE and no effective method to quantitatively extract it.This paper discusses the features of MBE,and develops a new quantitative method for MBE extraction based on topographical features.There are several algorithms available for automated extraction of topographical features,including ridge line,valley line and the boundary of mountains,and most of the current approaches are mainly based on regular statistic unit.This paper takes Taiwan mountain areas for experimental zone,and uses ASTER GDEM at resolution of 30m.Firstly,extracting main ridge line and main valley line by terrain analysis and hydrological analysis,and using topographical features to extract the boundary of mountains.Then based on the result of extraction,the distribution and the value of MBE are determined.The results show that the mountain areas of Taiwan can be divided into six MBE areas(0m,150m,200m,600m,630m,and 650m).The results can represent the distribution of Taiwan mountain basal elevation.This MBE extracting method is based on sophisticated algorithms,so it can improve the efficiency of the extraction process and the accuracy of results.The method could promote the extraction of the world's mountain basal elevation and the quantitative research of mass elevation effect.

Mountain hydrology, snow color, and the fourth paradigm

The world's mountain ranges accumulate substantial snow, whose melt produces the bulk of runoff and often combines with rain to cause floods. Worldwide, inadequate understanding and a reliance on sparsely distributed observations limit our ability to predict seasonal and paroxysmal runoff as climate changes, ecosystems adapt, populations grow, land use evolves, and societies make choices. To improve assessments of snow accumulation, melt, and runoff, scientists and community planners can take advantage of two emerging trends: (1) an ability to remotely sense snow properties from satellites at a spatial scale appropriate for mountain regions (10‐ to 100‐meter resolution, coverage of the order of 100,000 square kilometers) and a daily temporal scale appropriate for the dynamic nature of snow and (2) The Fourth Paradigm [Hey et al., 2009], which posits a new scientific approach in which insight is discovered through the manipulation of large data sets as the evolutionary step in scientific thinking beyond the first three paradigms: empiricism, analyses, and simulation. The inspiration for the book's title comes from pioneering computer scientist Jim Gray, based on a lecture he gave at the National Academy of Sciences 3 weeks before he disappeared at sea.

High on altitude: new attitudes toward human cerebral blood flow regulation and altitude acclimatization

High on altitude: new attitudes toward human cerebral blood flow regulation and altitude acclimatization

Mountains without erosion

Increased erosion associated with the rise of the world's great mountain ranges has been held to be the cause of a prolonged episode of past climate cooling. That connection is now brought into doubt. Reports that the geological record of erosion indicates a fourfold increase in global sedimentation rates during the past 5 million years merited a global explanation. Explanations offered include an increased rate of mountain formation and global cooling. Now Jane Willenbring and Friedhelm von Blanckenburg reanalyse original data sets and use ocean records of beryllium isotope ratios to obtain an indirect measure of past erosion rates and rock weathering. They find no clear evidence either for an increase in global erosion or for a pulse of weathered material in the oceans during the past 12 million years. They suggest that Cenozoic global cooling must have some other cause, and the mountain building that did occur had little effect on erosion or weathering flux globally.

About this title ‐ Continental Tectonics and Mountain Building: The Legacy of Peach and Horne

The world's mountain ranges are the clearest manifestations of long-term deformation of the continental crust. As such they have attracted geological investigations for centuries. Throughout this long history of research a few keynote publications stand out. One of the most important is the Geological Survey's 1907 Memoir on The Geological Structure of the North-West Highlands of Scotland . The Memoir summarized some of the Geological Survey's finest work, and outlined many of the principles of field-based structural and tectonic analysis that have subsequently guided generations of geologists working in other mountain belts, both ancient and modern. The thematic set of 32 papers in this Special Publication celebrate the 100th anniversary of the 1907 Memoir by placing the original findings in both historical and modern contexts, and juxtaposing them against present-day studies of deformation processes operating not only in the NW Highlands, but also in other mountain belts.

Sea‐level rise from glaciers and ice caps: A lower bound

One of the most easily measured dimensions of a glacier, the accumulation area, is linked to future changes in glacier volume and consequent changes in sea level. Currently observed accumulation areas are too small, forcing glaciers to lose 27% of their volume to attain equilibrium with current climate. As a result, at least 184 ± 33 mm of sea‐level rise are necessitated by mass wastage of the world's mountain glaciers and ice caps even if the climate does not continue to warm. If the climate continues to warm along current trends, a minimum of 373 ± 21 mm of sea‐level rise over the next 100 years is expected from glaciers and ice caps. When compared to recent estimates from all other sources, melt water from glaciers must be considered as a particularly important fraction of the total sea‐level rise expected this century.

Venomous Snakebite in Mountainous Terrain: Prevention and Management

The prevention and management of venomous snakebite in the world's mountains present unique challenges. This paper presents a series of practical, clinically sound recommendations for management of venomous snakebite in a mountain environment. The authors performed an extensive review of current literature using search engines and manual searches. They then fused the abundant knowledge of snakebite with the realities of remote first aid and mountain rescue to develop recommendations. A summary is provided of the world's most troublesome mountain snakes and the mechanisms of toxicity from their bites. Preventive measures are described. Expected symptoms and signs are reviewed in lay and medical terms. A review of currently recommended first-aid measures and advanced medical management for physicians, paramedics, and other clinicians is included. Venomous snakebites in mountainous environments present unique challenges for management. This paper offers practical recommendations for managing such cases and summarizes the approach to first aid and advanced management in 2 algorithms.

Creative Use of Mountain Biodiversity Databases: The Kazbegi Research Agenda of GMBA-DIVERSITAS

Geo-referenced archive databases on mountain organisms are very promising tools for achieving a better understanding of mountain biodiversity and predicting its changes. The Global Mountain Biodiversity Assessment (GMBA) of DIVERSITAS, in cooperation with the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, encourages a global effort to mine biodiversity databases on mountain organisms. The wide range of climatic conditions and topographies across the world's mountains offers an unparalleled opportunity for developing and testing biodiversity theory. The power of openly accessible, interconnected electronic databases for scientific biodiversity research, which by far exceeds the original intent of archiving for mainly taxonomic purposes, has been illustrated. There is an urgent need to increase the amount and quality of geo-referenced data on mountain biodiversity provided online, in order to meet the challenges of global change in mountains.

‘Wanting the Children and Wanting K2’: The incommensurability of motherhood and mountaineering in Britain and North America in the late twentieth century

The death of British mountaineer Alison Hargreaves, in 1995 while climbing K2 in Pakistan, the world's second-highest mountain, sparked debates in Britain and North America within mountaineering communities and the press. Hargreaves was a contentious figure because she climbed distant, high mountains as the mother of young children, and was thus constructed a ‘bad mother’. Drawing on ethnographic research in Banff, Canada and Nepal in 1999 and 2000, as well as mountaineering and other media, I examine the social anxiety arising over mother-mountaineers, in particular at a mountain film festival in Banff. Hargreaves and American Kitty Calhoun, who was also criticized, were both professional mountaineers and identified themselves as ‘normal working mothers’. I contextualize their maternal subjectivities within the wider public scrutiny over white, middle-class, working mothers at that time, to show how female mountaineers mediated their mountaineering desires within dominant discourses about ‘sacrificial motherhood’, which resulted in ambivalence. Hargreaves wrote in her diary while waiting to climb K2, ‘It eats away at me—wanting the children and wanting K2. I feel like I'm being pulled in two’. I argue that these women were situated at the intersection of two clashing discourses—mountaineering as a journey far removed from home and motherhood as an intensive presence with one's children bound to home. ‘El deseo de niños y el deseo de K2’: la inconmensurabilidad de la maternidad y el alpinismo en Inglaterra y Norte América en los finales de siglo XX La muerte de la alpinista británica, Alison Hargreaves, en 1995 mientras escaló K2 en Pakistán, el segundo pico más alto del mundo, resultaba en debates en Inglaterra y Norte América en las comunidades de alpinismo y los medios de comunicación. Hargreaves era una figura discutidora porque como una madre con niños pequeños, escalaba montañas altas y lejos, y como consecuencia fue construido como ‘mala madre’. Haciendo uso de medios de comunicación de alpinismo y otros, y una investigación etnográfica in Banff, Canada y Nepal en 1999 y 2000, examino la ansiedad social surgiendo de alpinistas madres, en particular en la festival cine de Banff. Hargreaves y la americana Kitty Calhoun, que fue criticado también, eran alpinistas profesionales y se identificaban ‘madres trabajadoras normales’. Contextualizo sus subjetividades maternales dentro del escrutinio del público a las madres trabajadoras blancas de media clase y muestro como median las alpinistas femeninas sus deseos de escalar dentro de discursos dominantes sobre ‘la maternidad expiatoria’, lo que resulta en ambivalencia. Escribío Hargreaves en su diario cuando esperaba a escalar K2: ‘Me está comiendo—deseando a los niños y deseando a K2. Siento que se me parte en dos’. Argumento que estas mujeres se situaron a las intersecciones de dos discursos en conflicto—alpinismo como un viaje que está muy lejos del hogar y la maternidad como una presencia intensiva con los niños que están obligado al hogar.

Diurnal Cycle of Convective Instability around the Central Mountains in Japan during the Warm Season

Abstract Convective rainfall often shows a clear diurnal cycle. The nighttime peak of convective activity prevails in various regions near the world's mountains. The influence of the water vapor and convective instability upon nocturnal precipitation is investigated using a numerical model and observed data. Recent developments in GPS meteorology allow the estimation of precipitable water vapor (PWV) with a high temporal resolution. A dense network has been established in Japan. The GPS analysis in August 2000 provides the following results: In the early evening, a high-GPS-PWV region forms over mountainous areas because of the convergence of low-level moisture, which gradually propagates toward the adjacent plain before midnight. A region of convection propagates simultaneously eastward into the plain. The precipitating frequency correlates fairly well with the GPS-PWV and attains a maximum value at night over the plain. The model also provides similar characteristics in the diurnal cycles of rainfall and high PWV. Abundant moisture accumulates over the mountainous areas in the afternoon and then advects continuously toward the plain by the ambient wind. The specific humidity greatly increases at about the 800-hPa level over the plain at night, and the PWV reaches its nocturnal maximum. The increase in the specific humidity causes an increase of equivalent potential temperature at about the 800-hPa level; as a result, the convective instability index becomes more unstable over the plain at night. These findings are consistent with the diurnal cycle of the observed precipitating frequency.

Mountain Biodiversity, Its Causes and Function

The personal safety and well-being of one fifth, and water supply for almost half of all people depend directly or indirectly on the functional integrity of mountain ecosystems, the key component of which is a robust vegetation cover. The green 'coat' of the world's mountains is composed of specialized plants, animals and microbes, all nested in a great variety of microhabitats. Because a single mountain may host a series of climatically different life zones over short elevational distances, mountains are hot spots of biodiversity and priority regions for conservation. With their diverse root systems, plants anchor soils on slopes and prevent erosion. Both landuse and atmospheric changes such as elevated CO2 and climatic warming affect mountain biodiversity. Sustained catchment value depends on sustained soil integrity, which in turn depends on a diverse plant cover. Whether landuse in mountains is sustainable is a question of its consequences for water yield and biodiversity. Given their dependence on mountains, lowlanders should show concern for the highlands beyond their recreational value.

A world‐wide study of high altitude treeline temperatures

AbstractAim At a coarse scale, the treelines of the world's mountains seem to follow a common isotherm, but the evidence for this has been indirect so far. Here we aim at underpinning this with facts.Location We present the results of a data‐logging campaign at 46 treeline sites between 68° N and 42° S.Methods We measured root‐zone temperatures with an hourly resolution over 1–3 years per site between 1996 and 2003.Results Disregarding taxon‐, landuse‐ or fire‐driven tree limits, high altitude climatic treelines are associated with a seasonal mean ground temperature of 6.7 °C (±0.8 SD; 2.2 K amplitude of means for different climatic zones), a surprisingly narrow range. Temperatures are higher (7–8 °C) in the temperate and Mediterranean zone treelines, and are lower in equatorial treelines (5–6 °C) and in the subarctic and boreal zone (6–7 °C). While air temperatures are higher than soil temperatures in warm periods, and are lower than soil temperatures in cold periods, daily means of air and soil temperature are almost the same at 6–7 °C, a physics driven coincidence with the global mean temperature at treeline. The length of the growing season, thermal extremes or thermal sums have no predictive value for treeline altitude on a global scale. Some Mediterranean (Fagus spp.) and temperate South Hemisphere treelines (Nothofagus spp.) and the native treeline in Hawaii (Metrosideros) are located at substantially higher isotherms and represent genus‐specific boundaries rather than boundaries of the life‐form tree. In seasonal climates, ground temperatures in winter (absolute minima) reflect local snow pack and seem uncritical.Main conclusions The data support the hypothesis of a common thermal threshold for forest growth at high elevation, but also reflect a moderate region and substantial taxonomic influence.