World Trade Center Attacks Research Articles

Abstract 820: Analysis of potential mutagenic effects of World Trade Center dust on in vitro systems

Abstract Following the World Trade Center tragedy of September 11, 2001 rescue workers as well as New York City residents were exposed to thousands of tons of complex particulate matter that was inhaled and ingested over an extended period of time. Some of the immediate effects of these pollutants included “World Trade Center Cough,” a condition that resulted in increased coughing, respiratory pathway irritation, and decreases in lung function. Though there are several known carcinogens found within the heterogeneous mixture of particles that make up World Trade Center dust, there is has been no clearly defined link between World Trade Center dust inhalation and specific cancer development. This study investigated the physical and chemical properties of World Trade Center dust using in vitro methods. A sample of this dust from the tragic events was given for this research by Dr. Paul Lioy of Rutgers University in New Jersey, who was the leader of the 20+ scientists who analyzed and published information on the chemical contents of this particulate matter. Human lung fibroblast cells (MRC-5 and WI-38) were exposed to various concentrations of World Trade Center dust and controls to simulate the World Trade Center dust exposure in in vivo lung systems. Proliferation and apoptosis rates were measured in cells exposed to various concentrations of World Trade Center dust. Assays such as the Apo-Live Glo Multiplex Assay (Promega) utilizing the techniques of luminescence and fluorescence were read by 96 well plate reader. The goal was to elucidate any physical or chemical interactions between cells and particles that may decrease cell viability and induce injury or mutation in DNA. These studies indicate that there is a very specific timing and concentration of particulate matter exposure which leads to noticeable apoptotic events in cultured cells. Apoptosis occurs after 24 hours of incubation for cells exposed to 25 ppm, but likely occurs earlier in cells exposed to 50 ppm and greater. An Ames assay was also performed to further demonstrate possible mutagenic effects that various concentrations of World Trade Center dust may have on living systems. Mutations were incurred by Salmonella typhimurium cells and successfully point to the increased possibility that World Trade Center dust would be a definite mutagenic material. These studies conclude that analysis of proliferation and the timing of apoptosis in cells exposed to World Trade Center dust, in conjunction with Ames assay, allow for a better understanding of the future risks to be faced by personnel exposed to particulate matter pollution following the World Trade Center attack of 9-11. Citation Format: Barbara Soares, Kayla Cortese, Ann Marie DiLorenzo. Analysis of potential mutagenic effects of World Trade Center dust on in vitro systems. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr 820. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-820

The Use of Sandplay Therapy in Urban Elementary Schools as a Crisis Response to the World Trade Center Attacks

We evaluated the use of sandplay therapy with a sample of 32 elementary school students, who were evacuated from school during the World Trade Center Attacks of September 11, 2001. We collected qualitative and quantitative data on each of the students who participated in sandplay therapy. Qualitative data included detailed case notes and photos from each sandplay session with the students. Quantitative data included academic and school-based preand post-test data. Results reveal student improvements in test scores, counselor and teacher ratings, attendance, behavioral referrals suspensions, and counseling status. Finally, we offer recommendations for the use of sandplay therapy as a means for helping culturally diverse children psychologically, socially, emotionally, and academically.

Virtual Reality Exposure for PTSD Due to Military Combat and Terrorist Attacks

Humans exposed to war and terrorist attacks are at risk for the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Numerous reports indicate that the incidence of PTSD in both returning Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) military personnel and survivors of the 9/11 World Trade Center (WTC) attacks is significant. These situations have served to motivate research on how to better develop and disseminate evidence-based treatments for PTSD and other related psychosocial conditions. Virtual reality (VR) delivered exposure therapy for PTSD is currently being used to treat combat and terrorist attack related PTSD with initial reports of positive outcomes. This paper presents an overview and rationale for the use of VR exposure therapy with anxiety disorders and PTSD and describes the status of two systems (Virtual Iraq/Afghanistan and Virtual World Trade Center) developed for this purpose.

Meaning reconstruction in the face of terror: An examination of recovery and posttraumatic growth among victims of the 9/11 World Trade Center attacks.

This study examines the relationship between meaning reconstruction with posttraumatic growth and depreciation in the aftermath of terrorist trauma and loss. A group of individuals (n=118) who were personally affected by the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks were surveyed about their experiences and administered the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory and Impact of Event scales. Subjects were volunteer docents at the Tribute World Trade Center Visitor Center. Results revealed that ability to make sense of one's 9/11 experience was related to recovery but not to posttraumatic growth, whereas ability to find some benefit in the experience was related to growth. In addition, location in downtown Manhattan on September 11, 2001 was related to higher levels of posttraumatic depreciation. Findings suggest that two aspects of meaning reconstruction are differentially related to recovery and posttraumatic growth.

Factors underlying organizational resilience: The case of electric power restoration in New York City after 11 September 2001

The 2001 World Trade Center attack resulted in widespread and highly non-routine failures to critical infrastructure systems. An immediate priority following the attack was the restoration of electric power in lower Manhattan. A study of the organization responsible for conducting this restoration is here presented in order to provide a productive critique of factors theorized by Woods (2006) [1] to affect organizational resilience. Data sources include logs of the behavior of the electric power infrastructure and extensive interviews with personnel at various levels of the organization. The conclusions of the analysis are used to frame a refined set of factors that shape organizational resilience, and to provide observations on the processes that underlie how organizations achieve—or fail to achieve—the potential for resilience.

Community Disasters, Psychological Trauma, and Crisis Intervention.

The current issue of International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience is focused on community disasters, the impact of trauma exposure, and crisis intervention. The articles incorporated include studies ranging from the World Trade Center disaster to Hurricane Sandy. These studies are related to public attitudes and beliefs about disease outbreaks, the impact of volunteerism following the World Trade Center attacks, alcohol misuse among police officers after Hurricane Katrina, posttraumatic stress disorder after Hurricane Sandy among those exposed to the Trade Center disaster, compassion fatigue and burnout among trauma workers, crisis interventions in Eastern Europe, and police officers' use of stress intervention services. While this scope is broad, it reflects the knowledge that has emerged since the Buffalo Creek and Chernobyl catastrophes, to the more recent Hurricane Katrina and Sandy disasters. Given the current threat environment, psychologists, social workers, and other providers need to be aware of these developments and be prepared to mitigate the impact of psychological trauma following community disasters, whether natural or man-made.

Dispersed narration of the new cosmopolitan novel: David Mitchell, Cloud Atlas

The ever-increasing body of contemporary cosmopolitan theory, partly inspired by globalisation and globalisation theory, focuses on various aspects of literary and artistic cosmopolitanism since antiquity. It concerns itself especially with the so-called new cosmopolitanism whose development was primarily marked by two events: the fall of the Berlin Wall and the 9/11 World Trade Center attacks. Among the key foci of interest in cosmopolitan theory is the cosmopolitan novel, characterised by urban and virtual spaces as sites of global circulations, the overcoming of traditional ideas of community and fragmented, yet cohesive kaleidoscopic narration. This article aims at analysing the dispersed narration and narrative structure of the cosmopolitan novel by and narrative structure by discussing Cloud Atlas by David Mitchell, a pioneer of the new cosmopolitan fiction in the 21st century. The idea is to explore the nature of narration in the novel, its meaning and effects, all of which point to a pressing need to reconsider our perception of a host of subversive and transgressive narrative techniques and strategies used in the novel today.

Narrative and Meaning-Making Among Manhattan Social Workers in the Wake of September 11, 2001

This qualitative study was a thematic analysis of categories of meaning-making contained in the written narratives of 139 clinical social workers living and working in New York City on September 11, 2001 (9/11) related to their personal and professional experiences of the World Trade Center attack. Themes included personal growth and benefit found in the wake of 9/11, the ongoing experience of adversity, and professional growth and lessons learned. Situated in the context of the literature on narrative and meaning-making, the findings offer further support for meaning-making as an intrinsic human activity and shed light on the various ways clinicians integrate an experience of shared trauma. Implications for theory, practice, policy, and future research are suggested.

Neural and genetic markers of vulnerability to post-traumatic stress symptoms among survivors of the World Trade Center attacks.

Although recent research has begun to describe the neural and genetic processes underlying variability in responses to trauma, less is known about how these processes interact. We addressed this issue by using functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptomatology (PTSS), a common genetic polymorphism of the serotonin transporter [5-HTT (5-hydroxy tryptamine)] gene and neural activity in response to viewing images associated with the 9/11 terrorist attack among a rare sample of high-exposure 9/11 survivors (n = 17). Participants varied in whether they carried a copy of the short allele in the promoter region of the 5-HTT gene. During scanning, participants viewed images of the 9/11 attack, non-9/11 negative and neutral images. Three key findings are reported. First, carriers of the short allele displayed higher levels of PTSS. Second, both PTSS and the presence of the short allele correlated negatively with activity in a network of cortical midline regions (e.g. the retrosplenal and more posterior cingulate cortices (PCCs)) implicated in episodic memories and self-reflection when viewing 9/11 vs non-9/11 negative control images. Finally, exploratory analyses indicated that PCC activity mediated the relationship between genotype and PTSS. These results highlight the role of PCC in distress following trauma.

A brief retrospective method for identifying longitudinal trajectories of adjustment following acute stress.

Research increasingly indicates that prototypical trajectories of resilience, recovery, delayed, and chronic distress characterize reactions to acute adversity. However, trajectory research has been limited by the practical and methodological difficulties of obtaining pre-event and longitudinal data. In two studies, we employed a novel method in which trained interviewers provided a graphical depiction of prototypical stress trajectories to participants and asked them to select the one that best described their experience. In Study 1, self-identified trajectories from 21 high-exposure survivors of the September 11th World Trade Center attacks distinguished variation in posttraumatic stress disorder and depression symptoms at 7 and 18 months, and were consistent with trajectories based on longitudinal outcomes and friend/relative ratings. In Study 2, we examined self-identified trajectories from 115 bereaved spouses at 1.5 to 3 years. Persons who identified a resilient trajectory, compared with recovery and chronic distress trajectories, had fewer interviewer-rated symptoms of grief, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder were rated as functioning more effectively by friends, reported higher life satisfaction, and had fewer somatic complaints. The present results provide initial evidence for the construct validity of a cross-sectional and less demanding method for identifying acute stress trajectories.

Critical issues in homeland security: a casebook

Introduction PART I -- Legal and Policy Challenges in Homeland Security Chapter 1. Law and Policy Case 1.1: The Use of Drones in TCounterterrorism: The Case of Al-Awlaki, Tobias T. Gibson Case 1.2: Presidential Declaration of Disaster Decisions: The Case of Turndowns, Richard Sylves Chapter 2. Terrorism Case 2.1: The 1993 World Trade Center Bombing: A Success or a Failure for the FBI?, Linda Kiltz Case 2.2: Terrorist or Ecosaboteur? The Case of Briana Waters, Linda Kiltz Chapter 3. Environmental Security Case 3.1: Arctic Security: Oil, Polar Bears, Melting Ice Caps, and U.S. National Security, James Ramsay and John Lanicci Case 3.2: The Impact of Hurricane Katrina on the Environmental Security of the US Gulf Coast Region and Beyond, John Lanicci and James Ramsay PART II -- Operational Challenges in Homeland Security Chapter 4. Intelligence Case 4.1: The Attack on Mumbai, India, Steve Young Case 4.2: Using a Principal Agent in Intelligence Collection in Afghanistan, Steve Young Chapter 5. Critical Infrastructure Protection Case 5.1: Catastrophic Pandemic: Cases in Ethical Decision Making, Linda Kiltz Case 5.2: The Impact of Cyber-Security on Critical Infrastructure Protection: The Advanced Persistent Threat, Gary Kessler Chapter 6. Transportation Security Case 6.1: The Howard Street Tunnel Fire (Baltimore), Francis L. Edwards Case 6.2: The Impact of the 9/11 World Trade Center Attack on Transportation, Francis L. Edwards Chapter 7. Emergency Management Case 1: The San Bruno Gas Pipeline Explosion, David McEntire Case 2: Lessons Learned from the 2010 Haiti Earthquake, Joshua Kelly and David McEntire Conclusion

Adolescent behavior and PTSD 6-7years after the World Trade Center terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.

Behavioral problems and psychopathologies were reported in children exposed to the World Trade Center (WTC) attacks in New York City within 2–3 y post-disaster. Little is known of subsequent 9/11 related behavioral and emotional problems. We assessed risk factors for behavioral difficulties and probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in 489 adolescent enrollees ages 11–18 y of age in the World Trade Center Health Registry cohort using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and DISC Predictive Scales (DPS), respectively, as reported by the adolescents. Associations between parental PTSD and adolescent PTSD and behavioral problems were studied in a subset of 166 adolescent-parent pairs in which the parent was also a Registry enrollee. Nearly one-fifth (17.4%) of the adolescents, all of whom were 5–12 y old at the time of the attacks, scored in the abnormal (5.7%) or borderline (11.7%) range of total SDQ. Problems were more frequent in minority, low-income, and single-parent adolescents. Abnormal and borderline SDQ scores were significantly associated with direct WTC exposures and with WTC-related injury or death of a family member. Adolescent PTSD was significantly associated with WTC exposure and with fear of one's own injury or death, and with PTSD in the parent (OR = 5.6; 95% CI 1.1–28.4). This adolescent population should be monitored for persistence or worsening of these problems. Co-occurrence of parent and child mental health symptoms following a disaster may have implications for healthcare practitioners and for disaster response planners.

The role of epidemiology in disaster response policy development

PurposeDisasters expose the general population and responders to a range of potential contaminants and stressors which may harm physical and mental health. This article addresses the role of epidemiology in informing policies after a disaster to mitigate ongoing exposures, provide care and compensation, and improve preparedness for future disasters. MethodsThe World Trade Center disaster response is used as a case study. We examine how epidemiologic evidence was used to shape postdisaster policy and identify important gaps in early research. ResultsIn the wake of World Trade Center attacks, epidemiologic research played a key role in identifying and characterizing affected populations, assessing environmental exposures, quantifying physical and mental health impacts, and producing evidence to ascribe causation. However, most studies suffered from methodological challenges, including delays, selection biases, poor exposure measurement, and nonstandardized outcomes. Gaps included measuring unmet health needs and financing coverage, as well as coordination across longitudinal cohorts of studies for rare conditions with long latency, such as cancer. ConclusionsEpidemiologists can increase their impact on evidence-based policymaking by ensuring core mechanisms are in place before a disaster to mount monitoring of responders and other affected populations, improve early exposure assessment efforts, identify critical gaps in scientific knowledge, and coordinate communication of scientific findings to policymakers and the public.

Posttraumatic stress disorder and new-onset diabetes among adult survivors of the World Trade Center disaster

ObjectiveTo explore the temporal relationship between 9/11-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and new-onset diabetes in World Trade Center (WTC) survivors up to 11years after the attack in 2001. MethodsThree waves of surveys (conducted from 2003 to 2012) from the WTC Health Registry cohort collected data on physical and mental health status, sociodemographic characteristics, and 9/11-related exposures. Diabetes was defined as self-reported, physician-diagnosed diabetes reported after enrollment. After excluding prevalent cases, there were 36,899 eligible adult enrollees. Logistic regression and generalized multilevel growth models were used to assess the association between PTSD measured at enrollment and subsequent diabetes. ResultsWe identified 2143 cases of diabetes. After adjustment, we observed a significant association between PTSD and diabetes in the logistic model [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.28, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.14–1.44]. Results from the growth model were similar (AOR 1.37, 95% CI 1.23–1.52). ConclusionThis exploratory study found that PTSD, a common 9/11-related health outcome, was a risk factor for self-reported diabetes. Clinicians treating survivors of both the WTC attacks and other disasters should be aware that diabetes may be a long-term consequence.

Unmet mental health care need 10–11 years after the 9/11 terrorist attacks: 2011–2012 results from the World Trade Center Health Registry

BackgroundThere is little current information about the unmet mental health care need (UMHCN) and reasons for it among those exposed to the World Trade Center (WTC) terrorist attacks. The purpose of this study was to assess the level of UMHCN among symptomatic individuals enrolled in the WTC Health Registry (WTCHR) in 2011–2012, and to analyze the relationship between UMHCN due to attitudinal, cost, and access factors and mental health symptom severity, mental health care utilization, health insurance availability, and social support.MethodsThe WTCHR is a prospective cohort study of individuals with reported exposure to the 2001 WTC attacks. This study used data from 9,803 adults who completed the 2003–2004 (Wave 1) and 2011–2012 (Wave 3) surveys and had posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or depression in 2011–2012. We estimated logistic regression models relating perceived attitudinal, cost and access barriers to symptom severity, health care utilization, a lack of health insurance, and social support after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics.ResultsSlightly more than one-third (34.2%) of study participants reported an UMHCN. Symptom severity was a strong predictor of UMHCN due to attitudinal and perceived cost and access reasons. Attitudinal UMHCN was common among those not using mental health services, particularly those with relatively severe mental health symptoms. Cost-related UMHCN was significantly associated with a lack of health insurance but not service usage. Access-related barriers were significantly more common among those who did not use any mental health services. A higher level of social support served as an important buffer against cost and access UMHCN.ConclusionsA significant proportion of individuals exposed to the WTC attacks with depression or PTSD 10 years later reported an UMHCN, and individuals with more severe and disabling conditions, those who lacked health insurance, and those with low levels of social support were particularly vulnerable.

Chronic Physical Health Consequences of Being Injured During the Terrorist Attacks on World Trade Center on September 11, 2001

Few studies have focused on injuries from the World Trade Center disaster on September 11, 2001. Severe injury has health consequences, including an increased mortality risk 10 years after injury and the risk of mental health problems, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The World Trade Center Health Registry identified 14,087 persons with none of a selected group of preexisting chronic conditions before 2002 who were present during and soon after the World Trade Center attacks, 1,980 of whom reported sustaining 1 or more types of injury (e.g., a broken bone or burn). Survey data obtained during 2003-2004 and 2006-2007 were used to assess the odds of reporting a diagnosis of chronic conditions (heart disease, respiratory disease, diabetes, cancer) up to 5-6 years after the attacks. Number of injury types and probable PTSD were significantly associated with having any chronic conditions diagnosed in 2002-2007. Persons with multiple injuries and PTSD had a 3-fold higher risk of heart disease than did those with no injury and no PTSD, and persons with multiple injuries and with no PTSD had a 2-fold higher risk of respiratory diseases. The present study shows that injured persons with or without comorbid PTSD have a higher risk of developing chronic diseases. Clinicians should be aware of the heightened risk of chronic heart and respiratory conditions among injured persons.

Use of Mental Health Services by Children and Adolescents Six Months After the World Trade Center Attack

The authors describe use of mental health services among children and adolescents after the September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center. Six months after the attack, sixth- through 12th-graders (N=6,986) who were representative of the student population were asked about their use of mental health services to talk about the attack as well as their exposure to the attack, symptoms of posttraumatic stress and major depressive disorders, and any conversations about the attack with a parent, teacher, or religious leader. Eighteen percent had used mental health services. Using in-school services was associated with conversation with a teacher about the attack. Using services outside school was associated with direct exposure to the attack, previous trauma exposure, probable psychiatric diagnosis, and conversation with a teacher or religious leader about the attack. Teachers and religious leaders can function as gatekeepers to identify children in need following a disaster.

Damage in Critical Infrastructures Due to Natural and Man-made Extreme Events – A Critical Review

Critical Infrastructures (CIs) play a crucial role in the normal performance of economy and society. Over the last decades the amount and the variety of CIs grew rapidly, and the interdependency between them increased constantly. Consequently more and more essential services depend on the continuous performance of one, two or even more CIs such as power supply, communications, etc. It is thus of utmost importance to ensure reliable and robust performance of critical infrastructures on a continuous basis, particularly during and after the occurrence of extreme events. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of the contemporary state of critical infrastructures’ preparedness, through a comprehensive literature review of significant extreme events that occurred in the past two decades. This paper examine the Oklahoma bombing (1995), the Izmit earthquake (1999), the World Trade Center attack (2001), the Indian Ocean tsunami (2004), hurricane Katrina (2005), the London July 7th attacks (2005), the Haiti earthquake (2010), and the Fukushima-Daiichi Nuclear disaster (2011). The review exposes insufficient preparedness of CIs in cases of extreme events and raises several root patterns which led to the severe consequences of the extreme events: a gap between the preparedness of the CIs to the actual risk; higher than expected consequences due to evolution of critical infrastructures; high and increasing interdependencies between the CIs, and high vulnerability of critical infrastructures despite the known risk. The consequences of those events reveal a mismatch between the actual risk to the CIs and between the investments that were made by decision makers for their preparedness.

Psychological distress after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident: results of a mental health and lifestyle survey through the Fukushima Health Management Survey in FY2011 and FY2012.

On 11 March 2011, the Great East Japan Earthquake followed by a gigantic tsunami hit the Pacific coast of Northeast Japan (Tohoku) and damaged Tokyo Electric Power Company's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, causing a radiation hazard in the entire Fukushima Prefecture. The radiation dose exposed either externally and internally in Fukushima residents have been evaluated to be low so far and it is hardly believed that they may have any direct radiation risk on physical condition. The purpose of this report is, therefore, to describe results of a mental health and lifestyle survey intended to facilitate adequate care for residents who are at a higher risk of developing mental health problems after the complicated accident. The target population of this survey is the residents of evacuation zones including Hirono Town, Naraha Town, Tomioka Town, Kawauchi Village, Okuma Town, Futaba Town, Namie Town, Katsurao Village, Minamisoma City, Tamura City, Yamakiya district of Kawamata Town, and Iitate Village. The targeted population was 210,189 in fiscal year 2011 (FY2011) and 211,615 in fiscal year 2012 (FY2012). Questionnaires have been mailed since January 2012, and subsequently, January 2013, 10 and 22 months after the disaster. Among of them, children 63.4%, adults 40.7% for FY2011, and children 41.0%, adults 29.7% for FY2012 responded to the questionnaires mailed. Sociodemographic data showed that many evacuee households were separated after the disaster and had to move several times. K6 was used in this survey to estimate general mental health. The proportion (14.6% in FY2011 and 11.9% inFY2012) of adults who scored above the K6 cut-off (≥13) for general mental health was higher than usual, indicating severe mental health problems among evacuees. The proportion (21.6% in FY2011 and 18.3% inFY2012) of adults who scored above the cut-off (≥44) of PTSD checklist (PCL), reflecting traumatic symptoms, was almost equal to that of the workers after the 9.11 World Trade Center attacks. These results also indicate the presence of severe traumatic problems among evacuees. The proportions of children (4-6 years old) and children of primary school age (6-12 years old) who scored above the cut-off (≥16) of Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) reflecting the mental health status in children, 24.4% and 22.0% in the survey of FY2011, were double the usual state respectively, whereas 16.6% in children of 4-6 years old and 15.8% in children of 6-12 years old in FY2012 were 1.5 times. These findings also disclosed the presence of severe mental difficulties in children, with relative improvement year by year. As revealed by the present mental health survey, the earthquake and tsunami followed by the nuclear accident caused psychological distress among residents in Fukushima prefecture. Continuous survey and mental care programs are required.

Alternative Mappings of Belonging: Non son de aquí by María do Cebreiro and Rasgado by Lila Zemborain

This essay examines the travels of the poetic speakers in two poetry collections: by the Argentinean writer Lila Zemborain, and by the Galician poet and critic Maria do Cebreiro, to postulate a revision of notions of belonging in its intersection with gender and space. Rasgado (2006) is a sort of poetic diary written by Lila Zemborain, who resides in New York, responding as both insider and outsider to the World Trade Center attacks on 11 September 2001. Maria do Cebreiro's book, Non son de aqui (2008) similarly follows the path of a nomadic speaker intent on redefining the terms of her relationship to a physical space both alien and familiar. The purpose of this essay is to read these nomadic trajectories with an eye to unveiling how the speakers' negotiation of their sense of belonging to New York City or Galicia generates alternative, more dynamic ways of inhabiting gendered identity and space.