World Oil Reserves Research Articles

ОКИСЛИТЕЛЬНАЯ ДИМЕРИЗАЦИЯ МЕТАНА ДО С2 УГЛЕВОДОРОДОВ

The world's oil reserves are decreasing every day due to the continuous production and processing of the most modern technologies. Scientists all over the world are looking for various raw materials and methods to use the vast resources of natural gas as a substitute for petrochemicals. In this regard, great attention is drawn to natural gas as an alternative source of raw materials for petrochemical industries. The purpose of this work is to study the reaction of methane dehydrogenation on new 20%La-10%Ce20%Mg-50% glycine catalysts prepared by the SHS method to identify the optimal conditions for their preparation, concentration and ratio of metals, the influence of contact time and process temperature on the direction and mechanism of the reaction. The results of the study of 20% La-10% Ce-20% Mg-50% glycine catalyst prepared by the SHS method in the process of oxidative dehydrogenation of methane into C2 hydrocarbons are presented. On the basis of experimental studies, it was found that the composition of the catalyst exhibits high activity in the above reaction under the found optimal conditions. Thus, the influence of reaction temperature on the developed composition of catalysts for oxidative conversion of methane has been determined that the optimum temperature for the selective formation of ethane and ethylene is T=700o С. It was found that for selective oxidation of a mixture of CH4: O2 : Ar in C2 hydrocarbons the optimal conditions are: T=700o С, CH4:O2=2,5:1, 5000 h-1.

Importance and Applications of Magnesium and Its Alloys in Automotive Industry

Dünya petrol rezervlerinin hızla tükenmesi, artan yakıt ekonomisi talepleri ve egzoz emisyon değerlerine getirilen yasal sınırlamalar otomotiv endüstrisini modern hafif yapılara yönlendirmiştir. Otomobillerde kütle azaltımı ile hem yakıt verimliliğinin sağlanması hem de yanma sonucu açığa çıkan zararlı egzoz emisyonlarının en aza indirgenmesi hedeflenmiştir. Bu bağlamda üstün özelliklere sahip malzemelere ihtiyaç duyulmuştur. Magnezyum ve alaşımları düşük yoğunluk, yüksek özgül dayanım, kolay geri kazanım ve mükemmel sönümleme kapasitesi gibi karakteristik özellikleri ile otomotiv uygulamaları için en dikkat çekici yapısal malzemeler olarak ön plana çıkmaktadır. Bu malzemeler otomobillerin iç donanım, karoseri, şasi, güç aktarma organları ve araç ön alanı gibi temel sistem ve bileşenlerinde kullanılarak ağırlıkta önemli bir kazanım sağlayabilir. Böylece gerek yakıt sarfiyatı gerekse de insan sağlığı ve çevre kalitesi açısından ciddi tehdit unsuru oluşturan egzoz emisyonları minimize edilebilir. Bu çalışmada, magnezyum ve alaşımlarının otomotiv endüstrisindeki önemine, mevcut ve olası uygulamalarına dikkat çekilmek istenmiştir.

An Improved Correlation to Investigate the Effect of Chemical Additives on the Mobility Ratio of Two-Phase Flow

World energy demand continues to increase, as they evolve, and developing countries consume more energy to keep their rising factories going. A significant portion of the energy demand is supplied by fossil fuels, especially crude oil. Therefore, in order to satisfy the world's energy demand, oil reserves and oil production capability must be increased. This objective can be accomplished by enhancing the recovery efficiency of the existing generating or mature reservoirs through the application of increased oil recovery. The injection of fluids into oil reservoirs has the purpose of supplementing natural energy and is used in some cases to engage with the reservoir's rock/oil system, standardizing for oil recovery, such as lower interfacial stress, oil swelling, reduction of oil viscosity and adjustment of wettability. Subject to comprehensive studies, in heavy oil reservoirs, polymer injection is not dependent on large technological instruments, requiring only mixing and filtration equipment, except for those already used for traditional water injections. In addition, polymers are non-toxic and corrosive and can produce desirable mobility ratios. The implementation of this approach decreases the output ratio of water to oil, thus decreasing operating. In the present work, thirty-five data points from experimental work had been investigated to develop a new correlation for viscosity of water by using the suitable program. It was analyzed the influence of the polymer additives on the mobility ratio, temperature and concentration effect on mobility ratio, and viscosity altering with the additives have been investigated. The results of the correlation showed acceptable agreement between the observed and predicted viscosity values. As a contrast to the polymer additives approach, pure water was proposed.

An Improved Correlation to Investigate the Effect of Chemical Additives on the Mobility Ratio of Two-Phase Flow

World energy demand continues to increase, as they evolve, and developing countries consume more energy to keep their rising factories going. A significant portion of the energy demand is supplied by fossil fuels, especially crude oil. Therefore, in order to satisfy the world's energy demand, oil reserves and oil production capability must be increased. This objective can be accomplished by enhancing the recovery efficiency of the existing generating or mature reservoirs through the application of increased oil recovery. The injection of fluids into oil reservoirs has the purpose of supplementing natural energy and is used in some cases to engage with the reservoir's rock/oil system, standardizing for oil recovery, such as lower interfacial stress, oil swelling, reduction of oil viscosity and adjustment of wettability. Subject to comprehensive studies, in heavy oil reservoirs, polymer injection is not dependent on large technological instruments, requiring only mixing and filtration equipment, except for those already used for traditional water injections. In addition, polymers are non-toxic and corrosive and can produce desirable mobility ratios. The implementation of this approach decreases the output ratio of water to oil, thus decreasing operating. In the present work, thirty-five data points from experimental work had been investigated to develop a new correlation for viscosity of water by using the suitable program. It was analyzed the influence of the polymer additives on the mobility ratio, temperature and concentration effect on mobility ratio, and viscosity altering with the additives have been investigated. The results of the correlation showed acceptable agreement between the observed and predicted viscosity values. As a contrast to the polymer additives approach, pure water was proposed.

Chemical modification of sunflower waste cooking oil for biolubricant production through epoxidation reaction

There are increasing concerns and growing regulations over contamination and environmental pollution. One of the major concerns is the pollution caused by mineral oils. As the world oil reserves are dwindling the pressures for finding alternative replacements are increasing. Vegetable oils are a biodegradable and renewable source of lubricants. Thus, they seem to be attractive candidates for the replacement of mineral oils. In this study, chemical modification of sunflower waste cooking oil through epoxidation reaction was used to improve its physicochemical properties to be used as biolubricant. Then, using the response surface method (RSM), the reaction yield was statistically modeled as a quadratic regression equation and optimal points were obtained for independent variables. The maximum amount of reaction yield was 82.9% and optimum values for independent variables were; 53.7 g of acetic acid, 30.1 g of H2O2, and 4.1 h of reaction time. The obtained optimum epoxide mixture was used as the starting material to produce SWCO triester during three chemical reactions and analyzed with the help of FTIR spectrum analysis. It was found that the physicochemical properties of the final product (SWCO triester) met the requirements of the ISO VG10 standard.

MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY: CURRENT DEVELOPMENT TRENDS AND SECURITY ISSUES

The subject of the study is the economic development and security space of the Middle East. The aim of the article is to identify the peculiarities of the development of the Middle East in the global economy and to identify conflict issues that destabilize the region and deepen instability. Methodology (method). To achieve the goal and solve the outlined tasks in the research process used general and special methods: historical-logical, analysis and synthesis, generalization and quantitative comparison, visual (tabular and graphical) (to visualize the results of the study). Results. The importance of development and stability of the Middle East region for the global economy is substantiated. The structural structure of the Middle East region is determined and the historical preconditions of its formation are detailed. The tendencies to geopolitical transformation of the region are confirmed. The main challenges for development and stability in the Middle East have been identified, including local conflicts, the growth of terrorist acts, and ethnic problems. Emphasis is placed on the Kurdish issue, which periodically becomes acute and unresolved. Local conflicts that destabilize the region, as almost all countries have sufficient resources to confront, are analyzed. It is confirmed that the countries of the region are increasing their military potential to ensure their interests. The countries of the Middle East are identified by the level of human development. It is confirmed that the conflict areas of the region are negative for human development in the countries, and the progress made is slowing down. It is established that the world economy also depends on changes in the economic and political situation in the region, due to trade wars between countries, the application of sanctions. As an example, the restrictions on US foreign trade policy against Iran and the practice of sanctions are considered. The growing role of the countries of the study region in the global economy, which is determined by the presence of deposits of natural resources, in particular, oil, has been confirmed. The regional distribution of world oil reserves and its production is analyzed. The impact of OPEC's daily oil production restrictions on the COVID-19 pandemic on the Gulf economy has been elucidated. Measures to be taken by Middle Eastern countries to support economic development and security policy in the region are proposed.

THE ECONOMIC-POLITICAL IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS IN CASE OF THE ACTUALITY OF DEVELOPIING OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Oil and natural gas are significant commodities in the world, on which the world industry, production, transport and other directions are depended. After the spreading of Corona Virus and continuous oil production by Russia, oil price began decreasing. This fact impacted on economy of the world oil producer countries and not only. It is noteworthy that the total bulk of the world oil reserves were 244.1 billion tonnes in 2018 which was increased by 1.3% compared to last year. At the same year the oil consumption was 4.5 billion tonnes which was increased by 1.6% compared to last year, too. Though oil consumption is connected to an ecological problems. The situation is lighter in case of natural gas, than oil. The alternative energies of oil, and generally hydrocarbons, are considered green economy, namely renewable energy resources. This means rationally using the resources, keeping reproductive processes, increasing productivity, saving economic and social prosperity of humans. Replacing non-renewable, lacking energy resources are being replaced with the renewable and ecologically clear ones (Abesadze, R. 2019). The aim of the sudy is to investigate how it is possible to replace hydrocarbons with renawble resources, how it only depends on the cost and stability of them, how it is possible to “let” the green economy, namely, renewable resources to be developed in the world, when oil and natural gas represent one of the instruments of power in the context of globalization.

CATALYTIC CONVERSION OF BIOGAS INTO SYNTHESIS GAS ON Ni, Co AND Ni-Co CATALYSTS

The world's oil reserves are shrinking every day due to continuous production and processing using the most modern technologies. Scientists around the world are looking for different types of raw materials and ways to use the vast resources of natural gas as a substitute for oil. In this regard, considerable attention is paid to natural and associated gas as an alternative source of raw materials for the petrochemical industry. In this paper, Ni, Co and Ni-Co catalysts carried to θ-Al2O3 prepared by the traditional method of air impregnation for moisture capacity are studied. The developed compositions of monometallic and bimetallic compositions of catalysts were studied by the XRD method. The efficiency of the dry methane reforming reaction was investigated in a stationary reactor under the optimal process conditions found experimentally: T = 700 and 900oC, GHSV = 6000 h-1 and CH4:CO2: Ar = 1: 1: 1.

Experimental investigation of performance and emissions of CRDI engine fuelled with kapok ester oil blended with diesel

As world oil reserves is going down rapidly and the world energy demand is going up, along with the increasing Greenhouse emission, we need to support the initiative by minimizing the emission and maximising the efficiency. We need to grow awareness among people of the importance of Biofuels which will be one of the energy source in the near future. This paper deals with fuel of kapok-Ester oil and Diesel oil blend in the Proportional of (10% of kapok-ester oil and 90% of diesel oil) and B20 (20% of Kapok-ester oil and 80% of Diesel oil).The properties of the blended fuel were measured according to the ASTM standards. The Experiment setup includes of single cylinder four stroke CRDI diesel engine with varying load at constant speed. The experiment results show that increasing the Kapok-ester oil proportion increases the brake thermal efficiency, decrease CO and increase the NOx emission.

METHOD OF NATURAL HYDRATE METHANE PRODUCTION WITH SIMULTANEOUS CARBON ACID SEQUESTION

Background Methane hydrate is a combination of methane with water, resistant to low temperatures and high pressure, outwardly resembles compressed snow. According to investigations, the reserves of methane hydrates are considered the largest reserves of natural methane, exceeding the world's oil reserves. Since methane is also a valuable natural energy source, timely development of its reserves is important for the economy and ecology. At present, a search is underway for a promising method for extracting methane from its hydrates. Recent research into the exploitation of this energy resource is related to CO2 sequestration, so this energy source can be obtained through CO2 sequestration, which will help to reduce the threat of global warming. However, be aware that the threat of global warming in this case is itself produced methane which is a greenhouse gas, therefore, must strike a balance in this process. Aims and Objectives Consideration of a new version of the method of extraction of methane from natural hydrates with simultaneous sequestration of carbon dioxide. Results In this paper, we propose a promising method for extracting hydrated methane that allows increasing the rate and depth of dissociation of methane hydrate with a sufficiently high degree of substitution of methane hydrate for carbon dioxide hydrate in the reservoir.

Estimation of porosity and fluid saturation in carbonates from rock-physics templates based on seismic Q

Rock-physics templates establish a link between seismic properties (e.g., velocity, density, impedance, and attenuation) and reservoir properties such as porosity, fluid saturation, permeability, and clay content. We focus on templates based on attenuation (seismic [Formula: see text] or quality factor), which are highly affected by those properties, and we consider carbonate reservoirs that constitute 60% of the world oil reserves and a potential for additional gas reserves. The seismic properties are described with mesoscopic-loss models, such as the White model of patchy saturation and the double double-porosity model, which include frame and fluid heterogeneities. We have performed ultrasonic experiments, and we estimate the attenuation of the samples and the reservoir by using the spectral ratio method and the improved frequency-shift method. Then, multiscale calibrations of the templates are performed by using laboratory, well log, and seismic data. On this basis, reservoir porosity and fluid saturation are quantitatively evaluated. We first apply the templates to ultrasonic data of limestone using the White model. Then, we consider seismic data of a carbonate gas reservoir of MX work area in the Sichuan Basin, southwest China. A survey line in the area is selected to detect the reservoir by using the templates. The results indicate that the estimated porosity and saturation are consistent with well-log data and actual gas production results. The methodology indicates that the microstructural characteristics of a high-quality reservoir can effectively be predicted using seismic [Formula: see text].

Development of a special connection fracture model for reservoir simulation of fractured reservoirs

The significant world oil and gas reserves related to naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs adds new frontiers to the development of upscaling and numerical simulation procedures for reducing simulation time. This work aims to accurately represent fractured reservoirs in reservoir simulators within a shorter simulation time when compared to dual porosity models, based on special connections between matrix and fracture mediums, both modeled in different grid domains of a single porosity flow model.For the definition of special connection fracture model (SCFM), four stages are necessary: (a) construction of a single porosity model with two symmetric structural grids, (b) geomodelling of fracture and matrix properties for the corresponding grid domain, (c) application of special connections through the conventional reservoir simulator to represent the fluid transfer between matrix and fracture medium, (d) calculation of the fracture-matrix fluid-transfer. For a proper validation, we apply our methodology in a fractured reservoir type II (tight matrix with flow controlled by fractures) and consider a probabilistic framework regarding geological and dynamic uncertainties.The probabilistic approach of SCFM under several static uncertainties revealed a good dynamic matching with DP. Under three rock-wettability scenarios (water-wet, oil-wet and intermediate-wet) the dynamic matching with DP is preserved. Furthermore, SCFM did not present convergence issues, considering all probabilistic realizations.The results revealed that the new method can be applied to commercial flow simulators in fractured reservoirs and it presents itself as a solution to reduce simulation time without disregarding the upscaling and dynamic representation of dual porosity flow models.

The Effect of Water Contents to Diesel Fuel-Water Emulsion Fuel Stability

The declining world oil and gas reserves along with increasing gas emissions from fossil fuel consumption has received serious attention as an urgent problem worldwide. The alternative solution to the problem uses emulsified fuel which is expected to provide better combustion efficiency and will contribute to emission reductions, such as NOx and particulate matter (PM). The one of most important factor in emulsion fuel is its stability. In this work, the effect of water contents to stability of diesel-water emulsion fuels has been investigated. The stability of emulsion fuel related to coalescence and sedimentation formation. The diesel fuel-water emulsification process was carried out in a standard stirred tank consisting of a cylinder tank (93 mm in diameter) and Rushton disk turbine (40 mm in diameter). Materials used consist of diesel oil (Pertamina DEX), demineralized water, surfactants (Lecithin, Triton X-100 and Tween 80). The surfactant used is a mixture of Lecithin - Triton X-100 (76.6%: 23.4%) and Lecithin - Tween 80 (45.5%: 54.5%) at 1% total volume of emulsion. The impeller set in constant speed at 1900 rpm. To reduce emulsification energy consumption, water is added gradually into the tank at 2 mL/min of flowrate. Water content varies at 5%, 10%, 20%, and 40% by total volume of emulsion. Physical properties of emulsion fuel such as viscosity and density at room temperature were investigated periodically. The characterization of emulsion fuel stability was measured by slope value of absorbance ratio at wavelength 450 nm and 850 nm. Sediment formation was periodically by visual observation as emulsion phase percentage. Emulsion droplet size was measured by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) method. Physical properties of emulsions such as density and viscosity tend to constant value in order of time. Emulsion fuel with 5% water content has the largest volume of emulsion phase in the rest of time, 83 % for L-T emulsion fuel and 95% for L-Tx. The lowest slope value shown by 5% emulsion fuel water content, -8.657×10-5 for 5% L-T emulsion fuel and -2,084 × 10-4 for 5% L-Tx emulsion fuel. Droplet size measurement of emulsion shown that different amount of added water caused the different droplet size of emulsion.

Biodiesel production from Cascabela ovata seed oil

Due to near exhaustion of world oil reserves and increasing environmental concerns, there is a demand for alternatives to fossil fuels. Biodiesel production from renewable sources is considered a candidate for substitution of petrodiesel. Cascabela ovata is a plant that grows in poor soils with limited water precipitation and it is circumscribed to the arid parts of Mexico. C. ovata seeds are rich in oil with applications in the production of biodiesel. Physicochemical properties of this oil were evaluated according to AOCS and ASTM methods. The profile of the fatty acids was determined by gas chromatography. Fuel properties were determined using the ASTM methods. Results showed that the main fatty acids in the oil mixture were oleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid. The best transesterification yield obtained was 95% under alkaline reaction using methanol and the fuel properties are within the limits of petrodiesel standards.

RANCANG BANGUN PURWARUPA TEKNOLOGI MIKROHIDRO MENGGUNAKAN KONSEP HIDRO FLUTTER

Menurunnya cadangan minyak dunia menjadi krisis global untuk beberapa dasawarsa ke depan. Pencarian alternatif energi terbaharui menjadi topik urgen tren penelitian saat ini. Indonesia memiliki keberlimpahan ketersediaan energi berupa potensi pengembangan mikrohidro. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian pengembangan teknologi inovatif baru dalam teknologi mikrohidro berupa teknik pengkonversian energi aliran air menjadi energi listrik menggunakan teknologi hidro flutter. Dalam penelitian ini dilakukan pengembangan alat baru pengkonversian energi dari aliran air menjadi energi listrik. Sebuah purwarupa dibangun yang bisa pengekstrak energi dari aliran air di kali menjadi energi mekanik yang siap di konversi menjadi energi listrik menggunakan prinsip hydro flutter dari sebuah flexibly mounted free leading edge cantilevered rigid plate. Keunggulan dari konsep baru yang ditawarkan adalah kesederhanaan dari desain dan kemampuan untuk membersihkan sistem sendiri sehingga mengurangi biaya pemeliharaan.

Kaolinite fines colloidal flow in high temperature porous carbonate media during saline water injection

Kaolinite clay fines are prevalent in sandstone porous media and it has great impacts on permeability and well productivity decline. High temperature sandstone formations detach the fines from the pore surface and migrate along with the permeating fluid. At some point the fine particles are strained in the pore throats, which leading to permeability damage and well productivity decline. To the best of our knowledge this phenomenon is not well explored in the high temperature carbonate media. Since most of the world's oil reserves are held in carbonate media and its worth to explore the formation damage, especially due to fines migration during higher reservoir temperature at these formations composed of carbonate minerals. Hence, this paper presents laboratory modeling of kaolinite fines colloidal flow in high temperature porous carbonate media during saline water injection. In this paper, we have conducted three sets of coreflood experiments in the temperature ranges of 100 °C 150 °C, and 200 °C. Kaolinite suspension water has been injected into the porous limestone core at these temperature regimes to investigate the possibility of permeability and injectivity deterioration. The main experimental results showed there is an increase in water saturation and heat transfer rates. Concentration of fines surges with increasing PVI and permeability declines with increasing time. Pressure elevates with enhancing PVI, but it plummets after some time. Significantly, the water discharge rate declines for increasing suspension injection and on the other side, for fresh water injection, the rate of water discharge rises steadily. Furthermore, the electrical and thermal conductivities of effluent kaolinite colloid were higher. Moreover, experimental model were tested against statistical based optimizational model, response surface methodology (RSM). These results revealed good agreement and, hence, this paper has explicated the importance of kaolinite clay fines suspension transport in high temperature carbonate reservoirs.

Laboratory investigation of oil recovery by CO2 foam in a fractured carbonate reservoir using CO2-Soluble surfactants

Miscible CO2 flooding has been used as an EOR method for carbonate reservoirs which hold around 60% of the world's oil reserves. However, natural fractures, unfavorable mobility ratio and gravity segregation in carbonate reservoirs often lead to premature CO2 breakthrough and bypassed oil. To remedy this situation, CO2 foam has been used to reduce the mobility of the injected CO2. Typically, this employed a water soluble surfactant for foam propagation. However, surfactant transport in the aqueous phase was often hindered by surfactant adsorption and undesirable chemical reactions with reservoir minerals. In this study, we investigated whether CO2-soluble surfactants were more effective than water-soluble surfactant in oil recovery of fractured carbonate reservoirs under miscible conditions.A series of corefloods were conducted to determine the oil recovery factor (RF), speed of foam propagation and foam strength in artificially fractured carbonate cores at 35 °C (308.15 K) and 1500 psi (1.034*107 Pa) which was above minimum miscibility pressure. Silurian Dolomite outcrop with permeability of 150 md and West Texas Wasson crude were used. The cores were intermediate-wet indicated by both qualitative and quantitative tests. Three different surfactants were compared including an anionic water-soluble surfactant and other two nonionic CO2 soluble surfactants (2-ethyl-1-hexanol with different ethylene oxide groups) with distinct degree of solubility in CO2. Phase behavior experiments indicated these surfactants did not lower the interfacial tension significantly between the crude and water.RF of CO2 flooding was only 24% due to the heterogeneous nature of the fractured core. Co-injection of CO2 and water increased the RF to 35%, which was further increased to 54% when a water-soluble only surfactant presented. However, use of CO2 foam by the two CO2-soluble surfactants increased the RF to 71% and 92% respectively, with a higher RF for the surfactant that partitioned more to the CO2 phase. Also, pressure drop in different sections of the core confirmed that the surfactant which partitioned more into the CO2 phase gave a faster-propagating and stronger foam.These results educated that the partitioning of surfactant into the CO2 phase has several advantages. First, it allows surfactant to be transported in the CO2 phase ahead of the aqueous phase thus leading to faster foam propagation. Second, it generated a stronger foam. The combined effect of the two leaded to higher RF in current scenarios. Several hypotheses based on literature were raised and listed to further interpret the observations. Our results also reinforce that the so-called optimal CO2 soluble surfactant is case dependent and is the function of injection strategy, reservoir environment, and operation pressure or rates as well as other specific conditions. One could tailor a surfactant with suitable solubility in the CO2 phase to optimize oil recovery in fractured carbonates. We believed the results were encouraging enough to warrant further R&D and eventual field piloting.

2018 Stubbendieck Great Plains Distinguished Book Prize Winner: This Blessed Earth: A Year in the Life of an American Family Farm by Ted Genoways

2018 Stubbendieck Great Plains Distinguished Book Prize WinnerThis Blessed Earth: A Year in the Life of an American Family Farm by Ted Genoways David Loope The winning author, Ted Genoways, lives in Lincoln, Nebraska, with his wife, Mary Anne Andrei, and their son, Jack. The son of Hugh Genoways, a former director of the University of Nebraska State Museum, Ted has long Great Plains roots in Bayard, a small town in Nebraska's Panhandle. Before receiving this award, Genoways won a National Press Club Award and the James Aronson Award for Social Justice Journalism. This Blessed Earth is Ted's third book and follows The Chain (2014), an exposé of the hard truths of the meatpacking industry in Fremont, Nebraska, and Austin, Minnesota. We all know that farming is a risky business: local weather and global markets are always in flux; expensive equipment can fail at any time. Farmers in the Great Plains make high-stakes decisions at a near-dizzying rate: what, where, and how to plant; when to harvest; when to sell; who to hire and who to let go. These decisions are made in the context of equipment debt, pivot debt, land debt, and the vagaries of crop insurance. This Blessed Earth: A Year in the Life of an American Family Farm follows the Hammond family of York County, Nebraska, through a year starting in June 2014. In October 2014 untimely rains force them to store the beans they had hoped to harvest and sell early before a burgeoning harvest would likely cause prices to drop. In May 2014 they learn that, due to forecasted corn surpluses, Pioneer may not need them to grow as much seed corn as last year. Later, they find out that they must renew their efforts to stave off a menacing transcontinental pipeline. Opportunity, romance, tragedy, and contingency play big roles in every family history, but with farming, all this drama can take place on a single set. On that set, succession—how will the farm be passed to the next generation?—generates by far the most drama. Rick Hammond, born and raised on a small cattle ranch in arid western Nebraska, met Heidi Harrington at the agricultural college in his hometown; they married after Rick's stint in the Peace Corps. Heidi was from eastern Nebraska, near the eastern edge of the High Plains Aquifer—some of the best farmland in the state. She was one of five sisters—the fifth generation of a family that had worked Centennial Hill Farm since it was homesteaded in 1874. Although divided equally among four of the sisters, the farm was then run—with considerable discord—as a single operation. In 2006, Rick and Heidi's daughter Meghan's high-school sweetheart was killed by a roadside bomb while serving with the US Marine Corps in Iraq. Meghan, then a student in Omaha, [End Page v] decided to return to the farm. She became the glue that held her hardworking family together, and eventually met and married Kyle Galloway—a quiet, competent man with the right skills and temperament to further secure the farm's future. Within the main narrative, Genoways skillfully intersperses an education on many subjects: the origin of hybrid corn, the evolution (and recycling) of tractors, and the coming of center-pivot irrigation to the Great Plains. Genoways was able to finally get me—a geologist focused on the carbon cycle and climate change—interested in soybeans after living in Nebraska for thirty-seven years. It turns out that in the mid-1930s, Henry Ford started to worry about the growing scarcity of world oil reserves. He wanted to keep farmers hooked on the tractors he built, so he financed research into the use of soybeans as biofuel. He invested $5 million in a soybean mill. Fortune magazine declared him "as much concerned with the soya bean as he is with the V-8 engine." Time called him "the bean's best friend." The 1938 discovery of the 75-billion-barrel Ghawar oil field in Saudi Arabia pulled the plug on soybeans as a biofuel, but, luckily, livestock feeders had just discovered that these oil-rich beans were just the...

The Comparison of Genset Machine CS 1000 L Performance Between LPG and Methane Gas Usage as The Fuel

Increasing demand of the energy along with the depletion of the world oil reserves had forced us to utilize the alternative energies in our daily life. One of those is that we should develop its utilization on biogas which a source of renewable energy and be able to overcome the problems that caused by the abundance of organic waste around us. Methane is a major element which found in biogas, therefore a preliminary study of the biogas utilization as resource of energy in a power plant can be preceed by the use of methane as a fuel gas in genset. This study compares the performance of CS 1000 L generator set that use methane gas fuel and LPG gas fuel. The results shows that the efficiency of thermal generator using methane fuel reaches 26.22 %. This value is higher than thermal efficiency genset that using LPG gas which only reaches the value of 8,26 %.

Renewable Energy Potential of Kazakhstan

2017 is the year when the capital of Kazakhstan Astana is hosting the EXPO2017 “Future Energy” conference. It is interesting to consider how Kazakhstan is developing renewable energy usage. Kazakhstan with its huge territory and not very large population is having great potential for renewable energy production. Most of the territory has sufficient amount for solar energy harvest and also large amount of area with high speed of wind, which has large potential to produce sufficient amount of wind energy. Areas such as Jungar Gates and Chylyk Corridor have a huge potential for the production of energy by wind turbines. The part of Kazakhstan between the Balkhash Lake and Aral Sea is not very populated due to shortage of water. At the same time this area has a very high level of solar irradiation. It is possible to harvest there a large amount of solar energy if it would have many solar panel arrays installed. The problem difficult to overcome would be the maintenance of these solar panel arrays due to low population and pure living conditions. There are at least two major reasons to go for renewable energy development in the country. First one – Kazakhstani leadership is looking into opportunities to change from a resource economy (it is one of the oil producing countries – it has more than 2% of the world oil reserve and many other resources) to a technology driven one. In this case resources will be used to produce different products. Due to that, one of the challenges is to move from fossil fuel driven energy production to alternative sources and the potential is there. Another stimulus is that Kazakhstan is the country which has joined to Kyoto protocol and Paris agreement. Thus, Kazakhstan tends to reduce greenhouse effect and also Kazakhstan is going towards the generation of energy from alternative sources. The government of the country is developing the legislation in direction to encourage producers and users to increase share of alternative sources for energy generation in Kazakhstan. It provides users with benefits if they supply energy produced by alternative sources to the grid with preferable rates.