Following the emancipation of the Jews most of the nineteenth century, it began to be asserted that Jews have an exceptionally average level of intelligence. In Britain, one of the first to make this assertion was Lord Ashley, who observed 1847 that Jews are people of very powerful intellect... they present, proportion to their numbers, far larger list of men of genius and learning than could be exhibited by any gentile country. Music, poetry, medicine, astronomy, occupied their attention, and every field they were more than match for their competitors (Vital, 1999, p. 179). Francis Galton (1869, p.47) also believed the Jews are highly intelligent people, writing his Hereditary Genius that they appear to be rich families of breeds. In France, the Count de Gobineau (1853) discussed the cultural and achievements of different peoples and concluded that the Aryans (Northern Europeans) and the Jews were the two most intelligent peoples. In the United States, the physician Madison Marsh (1874, p.343) wrote that the Jews have high average intelligence, and 1898 Mark Twain (1985, p.12) wrote that the Jewish contribution to the world's list of great names literature, science, art, music, finance, medicine, and abstruse learning is way out of proportion to the weakness of his numbers.This contention was frequently reiterated the twentieth century. In Britain, John Fraser (1915, pp. 30-1) his book The Conquering Jew advanced the thesis that the principal reason for Jewish achievement is that Jews are more intelligent than Christians: in alertness and knowledge, the Jew is the superior of the Christian; the struggle between the sons of the North, with their blond hair and sluggish intellects, and the sons of the Orient, with their black eyes, is an unequal one; if the Russian dispassionately spoke his mind, I think he would admit that his dislike of the Jew is not so much racial or religious recognition that the Jew is his superior, and conflict of wits will get the better of him.Writing four years later, Joseph Jacobs (1919, pp.55-7) gave an account of the success of Jews Germany and attributed this to Jews having intelligence: German Jews are at the present moment at the head of European intellect, hence, a determinant number of Jews will produce larger number of geniuses than any equal number of men of other races. In the United States, Thorsten Veblen wrote of the intellectual pre-eminence of Jews modern Europe (1919, p.35).With the development of intelligence tests the first decade of the twentieth century, evidence began to accumulate substantiating the theory that Jews have intelligence. Studies showing this began to be published the 1920s Britain and the United States, and more studies confirming this the United States were published from time to time throughout the twentieth century. In the 1960s landmark book was published by Nathaniel Weyl and Stefan Possony (1963) and further book by Weyl (1966), which brought together the evidence of the Jewish IQ and achievement and discussed the reasons for this.By the end of the twentieth century, it continued to be asserted that Jews have IQ. Herrnstein & Murray (1994, p.275) wrote that Whenever the subject of group differences comes up one of the questions sure to be asked is 'Are Jews really smarter than everyone else?' They showed that the United States Jews obtained an average IQ of 112.6 relation to 100 for non-Jewish Whites. Others who have reviewed the evidence on Jewish intelligence and concluded that Jews have IQ include MacDonald (1994, pp.188-190); Eysenck (1995, p.159): as far Jews are concerned, there is no question that they score very highly on IQ tests; and Michael Levin, who has written: in every society which they have participated, Jews have eventually been recognised (and disliked) for their exceptional talent (1997, p. …