World Cup Competitions Research Articles

A Time Trend Study of Significantly Elevated Perfluorocarboxylate Levels in Humans after Using Fluorinated Ski Wax

A time trend study focusing on ski waxing technicians' exposure to perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) from fluorinated wax fumes was performed in 2007/2008. Levels of eight perfluorocarboxylates and three perfluorosulfonates were analyzed in monthly blood samples from eight technicians. Samples were collected before the ski season, i.e., preseason, then at four FIS World Cup competitions in cross country skiing, and finally during an unexposed 5-month postseason period. The perfluorinated carboxylates perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) bioaccumulate, and continued exposure may contribute to elevated levels in ski technicians compared to the general population. The wax technicians' median blood level of PFOA is 112 ng/mL compared to 2.5 ng/mL in the general Swedish population. A significant correlation was found between number of working years and levels of perfluorocarboxylates. The PFOA levels in three technicians with "low" initial levels of PFOA (<10.0 ng/mL in preseason blood) increased by 254, 134, and 120%, whereas five technicians with "high" initial levels (>100 ng/mL in preseason sample) were at steady state. PFHxA is suggested to have a short half-life in humans relative the other perfluorocarboxylates. The levels of perfluorosulfonates were unaffected by the wax exposure.

Leadership at distance: English football fans’ trust in Sven-Göran Eriksson and David Beckham during the 2006 World Cup

Transformational theorists suggest that trust plays a critical role in effective leadership. A series of three web-based surveys was employed to gauge football fans’ perceptions and appraisals of trust within the uncertain context of the 2006 World Cup competition. Utilising a mixed methods approach with a repeated measures design, 113 fans rated trust in leaders Sven-Göran Eriksson (England manager) and David Beckham (England captain) at three key stages of the tournament. Fans also expanded on their trust ratings with open-ended responses. The unstable nature of trust was demonstrated by the significant decline of trust following the team’s exit. Perceptions of each leader as trustworthy were related to the outcomes of the team, implying that leader behaviours are viewed primarily in light of their associated outcomes. Fans’ trust appraisals incorporated factors such as competence, integrity and leader intentions. Of particular note was the finding that features of models of transformational leadership such as charisma, articulation of goals, personal risk and unconventional behaviour also emerged strongly within fan appraisals of Sven-Göran Eriksson.

One Year Later: A Re-Appraisal of the Economics of the 2006 Soccer World Cup

No two ways about it: the soccer World Cup competition in June 2006 in Germany was a great experience, not only for the soccer fans, and it still resonates far and wide. The various commentaries have all concluded that the economic effects were positive. Emphasis has often been placed on increased turnover in the retail trade, overnight accommodation, receipts from tourism and effects on employment. The present study shows that this reasoning is mostly of little value and may even be incorrect. Of more significance, however, are other (measurable) effects such as the novelty effect of the stadiums, the improved image for Germany and the feelgood effect for the population.

Nerves of Steel? Stress, Work Performance and Elite Athletes

There is a notable shortage of empirical research directed at measuring the magnitude and direction of stress effects on performance in a controlled environment. One reason for this is the inherent difficulties in identifying and isolating direct performance measures for individuals. Additionally most traditional work environments contain a multitude of exogenous factors impacting individual performance, but controlling for all such factors is generally unfeasible (omitted variable bias). Moreover, instead of asking individuals about their self-reported stress levels we observe workers’ behavior in situations that can be classified as stressful. For this reason we have stepped outside the traditional workplace in an attempt to gain greater controllability of these factors using the sports environment as our experimental space. We empirically investigate the relationship between stress and performance, in an extreme pressure situation (football penalty kicks) in a winner take all sporting environment (FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Cup competitions). Specifically, we examine all the penalty shootouts between 1976 and 2008 covering in total 16 events. The results indicate that extreme stressors can have a positive or negative impact on individuals’ performance. On the other hand, more commonly experienced stressors do not affect professionals’ performances.

Application of MRI of the wrist for age determination in international U-17 soccer competitions

Background: To guarantee equal chances for different age groups, age-related tournaments for male and female players have been established in soccer. However, as registration at birth is not compulsory in...

Analysis of patient load data for teams competing in the 2003 Cricket World Cup in South Africa

Objectives. To evaluate the injury presentation data for all teams taking part in 10 warm-up matches and 46 matches during the 2003 Cricket World Cup played in South Africa, in order to provide organisers with the basis of a sound medical-care plan for future tournaments of a similar nature. Methods. The data collected included the role of the injured person, the nature of the injury, whether the treatment was for an injury or an illness, whether the injury was acute, chronic or acute-on-chronic, and the prognosis (rest, play, unfit to play, sent home, follow-up treatment required). The medical personnel in charge of the medical support documented patient information which included the total number of patient presentations and the category of illness/injury. Results. Ninety patient presentations (1.6 patient presentations per match) were recorded. The most common patient presentations were by the batsmen (50%), followed by the bowlers (29%) and all-rounders (17%). Of the patient presentations, 53% were classified as injuries, while the remaining 47% were classified as illnesses. The patient presentations occurred in the early stages of the competition. The most common presentations were of an acute nature (63%). The main injury pathology categories were trigger point injuries (10%), and bruises / abrasions (10%), while infection (29%) was the main illness pathology. Conclusions. The 2003 Cricket World Cup proved to be an ideal opportunity to collect data on international cricketers participating in an intensive 6-week international competition; the epidemiological data collected should assist national cricket bodies and organisers of future Cricket World Cup competitions to predict participant-related injury rates. South African Journal of Sports Medicine Vol. 18 (4) 2006: pp. 129-134

Is tennis elbow the same type of tendinosis as achilles and patellar tendinosis?

changed dramatically, thanks to new research by professor Ronny Lorentzon and professor Hakan Alfredson in Umea, Sweden. They used micro-dialysis of the Achilles tendon and found that there was no increase of prostaglandins in tendinosis tendons in comparison with normal tendons. They also found that there was an increase of glutamate in the tendinosis tendons and have later shown that this can be found at nerve endings close to small vessels in the tendinosis tendons. Based on the findings of sensory nerves (SP, CGRP) in close relation to blood vessels and Colour–Doppler ultrasound investigations showing high blood flow in multiple vessels on the ventral side of the tendon, Alfredson proposed the use of Polidocanol to sclerose the area with vessels and nerves in the treatment of chronic achilles tendinosis. He has beautifully shown that this treatment is very effective. It also seems to work in patellar tendinosis. He treated Finland’s leading downhill skier with one polidocanol injection for chronic patellar tendinosis. This guy had had symptoms for a long time and became completely symptom free and won a world cup competition in slalom a couple of weeks later. Now Zeisig, Alfredson and Ohberg have found that tennis elbow seems to have the same increase of vessels as Achilles tendinosis. They have earlier shown that the tennis elbows do not have an increase of prostaglandins and now they show that they seem to react like the Achilles tendinosis cases and improve after polidocanol sclerosing. KSSTA is grateful that Alfredson and colleagues have elected to publish some of their extremely interesting research papers in our journal. For a Chief-Editor there are few happier moments than when you are able to publish papers that dramatically change our opinion about common treatments.

Variability of World Cup Skeleton Performance on the 2006 Olympic Track Compared with Established Tracks

Skeleton is one of the few sports that require athletes to produce two maximal efforts within one day. During World Cup competition both the start and run time for each effort are quantified with light gates. The first World Cup skeleton competition on the 2006 Olympic track in Torino took place in January 2005. This competition was unique, because competitors could practice on the track for only 1 wk (10 runs). PURPOSE: To compare the within-day run-to-run variability in start (first 50m) and run time of the Torino and other established tracks for men and women. METHODS: Start and run times for World Cup skeleton events held over 2003–2005 were collected from an Internet data base. The within-day variation in start and run times for the top 20 male and female athletes at each event was estimated as a typical error (%TE). RESULTS: At Torino start times were shorter (mean ± SD: men 4.81 ± 0.08 s; women 5.21 ± 0.13 s) than on the nine other tracks (range: men 4.97 – 5.51 s; women 5.50 – 6.05 s) and overall performance times were longer (men 62.1 ± 0.5 s; women 63.8 ± 0.7 s) than times produced on eight of the nine other tracks (range: men 50 – 61 s; women 52 – 62 s) with the San Moritz track being the exception (∼70 s). Despite the limited practice time (∼ 10 runs over 5 days compared to >30 runs over 1–2 years), the %TE for the start time (men 0.55%; women 0.82%) and run time (men 0.52%; women 0.83%) on the Torino track were similar to %TE observed on other tracks (start 0.4 − 0.7%; overall 0.2 – 0.9%). %TE for both start and run times for men and women were not strongly related to start or run duration (correlations <0.5). CONCLUSIONS: The variability in world cup skeleton performances is as low, if not lower, than the variability reported for repeat performances in other sports such as running and cycling. The low variability in start and run times indicate that either 1) elite skeleton athletes have a unique ability to reproduce the technical aspects of driving on many different tracks or 2) that factors besides driving strongly influence reliability of performance. It is possible that run-to-run variability is primarily stabilized by factors such as track conditions, mass, frontal surface area and runner characteristics. As a result, the athlete's driving ability at the elite level may only contribute marginally to the within day run-to-run variability.

Changes in Recovery-Stress State and Performance in Elite Rowers during Preparation for Major Competitions

This study investigated changes in the perceived recovery-stress state and performance in 6 highly trained Estonian rowers preparing for major competitions and representing Estonia in double sculls (age: M = 23.0, SD = 1.4 yr.; height: M = 198.0, SD = 0.0 cm; body mass: M = 97.1, SD = 6.4 kg), and quadruple sculls (age: M = 21.5, SD = 2.5 yr.; height: M = 189.5, SD = 5.4 cm; body mass: M = 90.9, SD = 4.8 kg). The subjects were training regularly and had been doing so for the last 10.5 yr. (double scullers, SD = 2.1 yr.) and 7.5 yr. (quadruple scullers, SD = 3.1 yr.), respectively. The Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes of Kellmann and Kallus was given two days before World Cup competitions. Standardized Stress and Standardized Recovery scores and RESTQ-Index were computed. In addition, resting cortisol in blood was measured at the same time. The performance of both boat classes constantly decreased from World Cup 1 to World Cup 3 as indicated by percent losses for winning boats. Resting cortisol and RESTQ-Index increased and decreased, respectively, at the same time. For double scullers, a decrease in RESTQ-Index mainly reflected the large decrease in the Standardized Recovery score. A decrease in RESTQ-Index was mainly based on a large increase in the Standardized Stress score for rowers performing in a quadruple scull. Present results indicate that the recovery-stress state affects performance of rowers in international competitions. RESTQ-Index could be used as the athletes' resource measure, while the Standardized Stress and Standardized Recovery scores reflect the athletes' extent of stress and recovery separately.

The importance of being light: aerodynamic forces and weight in ski jumping

Many contemporary world class ski jumpers are alarmingly underweight and several cases of anorexia nervosa have come to light. Athletes strive for low body weight because it gives them a major competitive advantage. In order to stop this hazardous development, changes to the regulations are being discussed, and the International Ski Federation and the International Olympic Committee wish to be proactive in safe guarding the interest of the athletes and their health. This study of ski jumping uses field studies conducted during World Cup competitions, large-scale wind tunnel measurements with 1:1 models of ski jumpers in current equipment and highly accurate computer simulations of the flight phase that include the effects due to the athlete's position changes. Particular attention has been directed to the design of a reference jump that mirrors current flight style and equipment regulations (2001), and to the investigation of effects associated with variation in body mass, air density, and wind gusts during the simulated flight. The detailed analysis of the physics of ski jumping described here can be used for the investigation of all initial value and parameter variations that determine the flight path of a ski jumper and will form a reliable basis for setting regulations that will make it less attractive or even disadvantageous for the athlete to be extremely light.

Anthropometric profiles of elite male and female competitive sport rock climbers

Over the past few years, competitive rock climbing--for a long time a popular sport in Europe--has increased in popularity in North America. An annual international World Cup competition circuit was started in 1988 which has shown growing success and a definite elite group of athletes has emerged. Descriptive anthropometric profiles of elite climbers have been unavailable. In order to fill this information void, 39 world-class climbers (21 males, 18 females) were assessed immediately prior to competition at an international World Cup sport climbing championship. All of the subjects tested were competition semi-finalists and, among these, seven males and six females advanced to the finals. The variables measured included age, years of climbing experience, height, body mass, height-weight ratio, sum of seven skinfolds, % body fat, fat-free mass, hand and arm volumes via plethysmography, average of right and left grip strengths, grip strength to body mass ratio (SMR), and climbing ability defined as the most difficult route climbed on lead. The results indicated that elite sport climbers are of small to moderate stature and exhibit very low % fat, moderate grip strength and high SMR when compared with other athletic groups. Values for the height-weight ratio and sum of seven skinfolds in the female finalists were very near those of the male finalists, which may indicate that reduction of body mass and % fat are primary adaptations in these female athletes. Climbing ability was predictable from SMR and % fat, though the R2 was low.

Injury patterns in nordic ski jumpers. A retrospective analysis of injuries occurring at the Intervale Ski Jump Complex from 1980 to 1985.

No studies describing the types and frequencies of nordic ski jumping injuries have been reported in the medical literature. We examined records of injuries sustained at the Intervale Ski Jump Complex (15, 40, 70, and 90 meter jumps) in Lake Placid from 1980 to 1985. Forty-seven injured jumpers sustained 72 total injuries. The most frequent injuries were contusions. Fractures occurred in 11 jumpers; most were nondisplaced. Upper extremity fractures outnumbered lower extremity fractures. Injuries requiring hospitalization were uncommon; none of these resulted in permanent disability. Injury rates for non-World Cup and for World Cup competitions were 4.3 and 1.2 injuries per 1,000 skier-days, respectively. This is roughly equivalent to injury rates in alpine skiing. Our study suggests that the dangers of nordic ski jumping have been overestimated.