Workplace Stigma Research Articles

How to combat stigma surrounding mental health disorders: a scoping review of the experiences of different stakeholders

BackgroundThe stigma associated with mental health disorders (MHDs) results in delayed help-seeking, limited access to health services, suboptimal treatment, poor treatment outcomes, and an increased risk of human rights violations. This scoping review summarizes qualitative research on the lived experiences of different stakeholders regarding strategies and interventions to combat stigma for people with MHDs.MethodsThis study was a six-step scoping review using the Arksey and O’Malley framework. A comprehensive search of the following electronic databases was conducted to identify relevant records: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science (WoS) and Google Scholar, as well as a manual search of the reference lists. All steps, including screening of eligible studies, data extraction, and analysis, were performed independently by multiple reviewers, with disagreements resolved by discussion. The data were synthesized based on the for-content synthesis guidelines.ResultsA total of 25 studies were included in this review of the 32,976 initial identified citations. The included studies were from all countries (low, middle, and high income), stigmatized disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, etc.) and target populations (e.g., people with MHDs and their families, health care providers, the general community, and students and school members). The thematic synthesis revealed six types of interventions and strategies and 17 themes related to reducing stigma in patients on MHDs. Strategies and interventions were classified by patient (self-stigma), family (family stigma), healthcare professionals’ stigma, workplace stigma, public/societal stigma, and structural type of stigma (institutional stigma).ConclusionsThis review contributes new evidence that should be considered in future interventions and policies to reduce stigma against MHDs. Multilevel and multistakeholder strategies and interventions are needed to reduce the stigmatization of MHDs.

A psychometric evaluation of the Opening Minds Scale for Workplace Attitudes (OMS-WA), a measure of public stigma towards mental illnesses in the workplace

The anti-stigma Opening Minds initiative (Mental Health Commission of Canada) identified the workplace as one of four critical areas for stigma evaluation and programming. Researchers found, however, that no validated tool to measure stigma in this context existed at the time. The purpose of the current research was to develop and assess the psychometric properties of a multi-component quantitative measure of public stigma towards mental illnesses in the workplace: Opening Minds Scale for Workplace Attitudes (OMS-WA). Three studies are discussed. Study 1 outlines the initial development of the OMS-WA, finding a five-factor structure with 23 items (EFA analysis; N = 207). Study 2 utilized employees from various businesses to further validate the OMS-WA, (N = 107), finding good internal consistency and good convergent/divergent validity. Study 3 utilized baseline data from two national large-scale stigma reduction and resiliency programs (first responders and general workplaces) to confirm the factor structure, finding good model fit and reliability with both samples (N = 5385; N = 1207). Together, these results provide strong evidence of the OMS-WA. Its use in measuring workplace stigma related to mental illness is recommended. Considerable future evaluation is warranted, and directions for generalizability studies, as well as suggestions for using the OMS-WA in intervention trials, are provided.

Advancing Stigma Measurement: Comprehensive Validation of the Workplace Stigma Characteristics Scale

Advancing Stigma Measurement: Comprehensive Validation of the Workplace Stigma Characteristics Scale

Investigating the Relationship Between Psychosocial Safety Climate and Mental Illness Stigma Among Emergency Medical Service Clinicians

Objectives To examine the relationship between psychosocial safety climate (PSC) and mental illness stigma among emergency medical service (EMS) clinicians. Despite the presence of mental health services at many EMS agencies, workers often do not seek treatment due to mental illness stigma. To facilitate treatment receipt and maintain a healthy workforce, we must understand factors contributing to stigma. Psychosocial safety climate refers to the degree to which workers perceive that their organization fosters a work environment focused on the protection of psychological health and safety. Despite its relevance, the relationship between PSC and mental illness stigma has yet to be examined. Methods Participants were recruited from EMS agencies in the Northeastern U.S. Census Region. We used an observational research design and multiple linear regression to investigate the relationship between overall levels of PSC using the Psychosocial Climate Scale (PSC-12) and mental illness stigma using the Endorsed and Anticipated Stigma Inventory - Workplace Stigma Subscale. We also examined separate facets of PSC to determine if one was more related to stigma. Using established guidelines and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, we compared workers rating their agencies as having high-risk (≤37 points) or low-risk PSC levels (≥41 points). Results The sample was n = 124 EMS clinicians (Mage = 29.6, SDage = 9.2, 53.2% male). Most were White (88.7%) with some college/college degree (79.8%). After adjusting for age, gender, race, education, and mental health treatment receipt, clinicians reporting that their workplaces were less focused on psychosocial safety and health (i.e., lower overall levels of PSC) also reported elevated levels of stigma (b = −0.27, SE = 0.05, 95% CI = −0.37, −0.17, p < .001). Exploratory analyses indicated that no PSC facet was more related to stigma than another. Clinicians reporting high-risk levels displayed stigma levels that were 38% higher compared to clinicians reporting low-risk PSC levels. Conclusions Psychosocial safety climate is an important and modifiable intervention target linked to mental illness stigma in EMS clinicians. Organizational policies, practices, and procedures that convey that mental health is valued and should be protected may reduce stigma and facilitate treatment receipt among this high-risk population.

It is not a vacation of leisure: The effect of maternity-leave stigma on fertility intentions in China

In response to the public's puzzle about why maternity leave has unexpectedly failed to improve fertility problem in the Chinese context of a widespread extension of maternity leave, our study concentrates on a prevailing stigmatization phenomenon of maternity leave in the workplace, proposes the construct “maternity-leave stigma”, operationalizes it, and examines its probable detrimental effect on working individuals' fertility intentions drawing on conservation of resources theory, self-verification theory, and research on stigma and psychological contract violation. Conceptually, maternity-leave stigma is a kind of workplace stigma that primarily depicts the extent to which working individuals in the reproductive period view maternity leave or the event of taking maternity leave in a biased way. It mainly consists of four subdimensions called cognitive stigma, emotional stigma, moral stigma, and consequence stigma. Based on multiple analyses of the three-stage questionnaire survey data from working individuals of childbearing age in China, Study 1 (N1 = 296, N2 = 340) acquires a 12-item maternity-leave stigma scale with good reliability and validity and Study 2 (N2 = 340) substantiates that, working individuals' maternity-leave stigma tends to directly and indirectly inhibit their fertility intentions and their anticipatory psychological contract violation from organization is the crucial mediator. Moreover, working women are inclined to display a much stronger inhibiting effect of maternity-leave stigma on fertility intentions compared to working men. Our findings therefore resolve the public's puzzle, enrich workplace stigma, deepen the implementation effectiveness research of maternity leave policy, and are of practical implications for building a fertility-friendly society.

Mental Health Stigma in the Workplace and its Association with Possible Actions of Managers to Prevent Sickness Absence of Employees with Mental Health Problems in the Swedish Private Sector: a Video Vignette Study.

Mental health problems (MHPs) are subjected to workplace stigma and can deteriorate into common mental disorders (CMDs) and sickness absence (SA). Research has shown that personal stigmatizing attitudes limit managers' efforts towards employees with MHPs, but knowledge is lacking regarding stigma in social contexts (contextual stigma) and different types of possible preventive actions. This study investigates personal stigmatizing attitudes and three contextual stigma layers (employee, collegial, organizational) and different types of possible actions to prevent SA of employees with MHPs. Survey data of 2769 Swedish managers working in the private sector were analysed. Personal stigmatizing attitudes were measured with the managerial stigma towards employee depression scale and supplemented with four additional items capturing contextual stigma. Managers watched video vignettes and assessed which preventive actions (n = 20) were possible to use in their organization. A sum score was calculated reflecting the 'number of actions'. Principal component analysis revealed three action types: adapt tasks and setting, involve experts, and social support. A score reflecting the 'possibilities to implement actions' was calculated for each type. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted with the four stigma layers as independent variables for each of the three action variables. Personal stigmatizing attitudes and contextual stigma were significantly associated with both 'number of actions' and 'possibilities for implementing actions' relating to all action types. Patterns of associations with contextual stigma were significant but varied between the different action types. This study substantiated the role of personal stigmatizing attitudes and contextual stigma in relation to possible actions of managers to prevent SA of employees with MHPs. The results emphasize the role of contextual stigma. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

Anticipated and experienced stigma and discrimination in the workplace among individuals with major depressive disorder in 35 countries: qualitative framework analysis of a mixed-method cross-sectional study

ObjectivesWorkplace stigmatisation and discrimination are significant barriers to accessing employment opportunities, reintegration and promotion in the workforce for people with mental illnesses in comparison to other disabilities. This paper presents...

NIDILRR ARRT Fellows Symposium: Exploration of Workplace Stigma Resistance among Mental Health Peer Support Specialists

NIDILRR ARRT Fellows Symposium: Exploration of Workplace Stigma Resistance among Mental Health Peer Support Specialists

Content and face validity of Workplace COVID-19 Knowledge & Stigma Scale (WoCKSS)

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has led to fear, rumours, and stigma, particularly against those infected with the virus. In Malaysia, the manufacturing industry is particularly vulnerable to COVID-19 clusters, making it critical to assess stigma attitudes among workers. To address this issue, The Workplace COVID-19 Knowledge & Stigma Scale (WoCKSS) was developed specifically for use in the manufacturing industry which served as the sample population for testing this scale. It was developed in the Malay language to ensure alignment with the local context. This study examines the content and face validity of WoCKSS, which can help assess the level of knowledge and stigma associated with COVID-19 among workers.MethodsThe WoCKSS was developed with 20 and 31 items for knowledge and stigma domains, respectively, based on an extensive review of COVID-19 literature. Content validation was conducted by four experts using a content validation form to assess the relevancy of each item to the intended construct. Content Validity Index (CVI) was calculated to measure the agreement between the experts on the relevance of each item to the intended construct. Face validation was then conducted by randomly selecting 10 respondents from the manufacturing industry, who rated the clarity and comprehension of each item using a face validation form. The Item Face Validity Index (I-FVI) was calculated to determine the clarity and comprehension of each question, and only items with an I-FVI ≥ 0.83 were retained.ResultsThe WoCKSS achieved excellent content validity in both knowledge and stigma domains. Only 19 items from the knowledge domain and 24 items from the stigma domain were retained after CVI analysis. All retained items received a CVI score of 1.00, indicating perfect agreement among the experts. FVI analysis resulted in 17 items for the knowledge domain and 22 items for the stigma domain. The knowledge domain achieved a high level of agreement among respondents, with a mean I-FVI of 0.91 and a S-FVI/UA of 0.89. The stigma domain also showed high agreement, with a mean I-FVI of 0.99 and a S-FVI/UA of 0.86.ConclusionIn conclusion, the WoCKSS demonstrated high content and face validity. However, further testing on a larger sample size is required to establish its construct validity and reliability.

Practitioner Reflection: Reliance on Informal and Gig Economies Leaves LGBTQ+ Populations with Fewer Economic Choices and Greater Vulnerability to Trafficking

ABSTRACT Vulnerability to human trafficking is exacerbated by poverty, familial violence and abuse, homelessness, un- and under-employment, and migration. Many of these established vulnerabilities to human trafficking are also common vulnerabilities experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and other (LGBTQ+) populations worldwide. Further, LGBTQ+ individuals face additional risks due to community and workplace stigma. These circumstances result in disproportionate barriers to formal employment, particularly in stable jobs that pay a living wage and are insulated from economic shocks. Yet anti-trafficking efforts frequently overlook LGBTQ+ people’s particular needs. LGBTQ+ people frequently rely on insecure, informal, and gig economies for their livelihoods, making them susceptible to trafficking. Yet informal work opportunities also have positives. Individuals may maintain control of their work circumstances in ways they cannot if they work in formal settings. LGBTQ+ people report being able to choose contracts and clients or move on quickly when encountering unsafe situations. It should be noted that controlling our circumstances is a key tenet of trauma-informed support. Anti-trafficking interventions frequently seek transformational change with “rescue and rebuilding” underpinning programming. The authors propose an alternative model built around i) diversifying livelihood choices, ii) fostering psychological safety and iii) addressing the individual-level impacts of systemic stigma and discrimination.

Improving Work Participation Outcomes Among Unemployed People with Mental Health Issues/Mental Illness: Feasibility of a Stigma Awareness Intervention.

As stigma is a barrier to work participation of unemployed people with mental health issues/mental illness (MHI), a stigma awareness intervention can be helpful to make informed decisions about disclosing MHI. The aim of this process evaluation was to investigate the feasibility of a stigma awareness intervention, to explore experiences of clients and their employment specialists; and to give recommendations for further implementation. The intervention consisted of a stigma awareness training for employment specialists and a decision aid tool for their clients with (a history of) MHI. For the process evaluation, six process components of the Linnan & Stecklar framework were examined: recruitment, reach, dose delivered, dose received, fidelity and context. Using a mixed-methods design, quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed. The six components showed the intervention was largely implemented as planned. Questionnaire data showed that 94% of the clients found the tool useful and 87% would recommend it to others. In addition, more than half (54%) indicated the tool had been helpful in their disclosure decision. Qualitative data showed that participants were mainly positive about the intervention. Nevertheless, only a minority of clients and employment specialists had actually discussed the tool together. According to both, the intervention had increased their awareness of workplace stigma and the disclosure dilemma. The implementation of a stigma awareness intervention was feasible and did increase stigma awareness. Experiences with the intervention were mainly positive. When implementing the tool, it is recommended to embed it in the vocational rehabilitation system, so that discussing the disclosure dilemma becomes a routine. The study was retrospectively registered at the Dutch Trial Register (TRN: NL7798, date: 04-06-2019).

Is workplace mental health stigma associated with managers’ prevention of employee’s sick-leave?

Abstract Common Mental Disorders (CMDs) are a common cause for sick-leave. CMDs carry stigma and it has been argued that stigma impairs support in the workplace. Earlier research has investigated managers’ personal stigma towards CMDs, but insight into contextual stigma at work, and its importance for sick-leave prevention is lacking. We investigated personal stigma and three layers of contextual stigma (employee, collegial, organizational) and its association with managers’ possibility to take different types of actions to prevent sick-leave. 2,769 Swedish managers from the private sector partook in a survey. Personal stigma was measured with an established scale that was supplemented with four additional items capturing contextual stigma. The managers’ possibility to prevent sick-leave regarding 20 possible preventive actions was assessed using a video vignette design. Principal component analysis revealed three types of actions: ‘Actions to adapt tasks and setting', ‘Actions to involve experts', and ‘Social support actions'. Multiple linear regression analyses were done with the layers of stigma as independent variables for each of the three types of actions, adjusted for co-variates. Personal stigma was significantly associated with the possibility for all types of actions (p&amp;lt;.001). Collegial and organizational stigma was associated with the possibility for ‘Actions to adapt tasks and setting’ (p&amp;lt;.001). Collegial stigma was associated with the possibility for ‘Actions to involve experts’ (p&amp;lt;.001). All contextual stigma variables were associated with the possibility for ‘Social support actions’ (p&amp;lt;.01). More workplace stigma was associated to lower possibility to take action. Personal and contextual stigma were associated with less possibilities for managers to prevent sick-leave in relation to the vignette case. This calls for greater awareness for mental health stigma in workplaces and how stigma can impair sick-leave prevention. Key messages • Workplace mental health stigma consists of personal, employee, collegial, and organizational stigma. Managers can take three types of actions: adapt tasks and settings, involve experts, and support. • More workplace mental health stigma is associated to lower possibility for managers to take action to prevent sick-leave.

Effectiveness of a Stigma Awareness Intervention on Reemployment of People with Mental Health Issues/Mental Illness: A Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial

PurposeA barrier for reemployment of people with mental health issues/mental illness (MHI) is workplace stigma and discrimination. In this RCT the effectiveness of a stigma-awareness intervention addressing finding work, retaining work and decisional stress were evaluated.MethodsA cluster RCT was conducted in 8 Dutch municipal practices. Randomisation took place at practice level. Participants were unemployed people with MHI, receiving social benefits. The intervention consisted of a decision aid for workplace disclosure for participants and a 2 × 3 h stigma-awareness training for their employment specialists. Primary outcomes were measured at baseline, 3-, 6- and 12-months. Multilevel analyses, containing random intercepts of participants nested in organizations, were conducted to analyse the effects of the intervention.ResultsParticipants (N = 153) were randomized to an experimental (n = 76) or control group (n = 77). At six months, significantly more participants of the experimental group (51%) had found work compared to the control group (26%). At twelve months, significantly more participants of the experimental group (49%) had retained work compared to the control group (23%). Intention-to-treat analyses showed that randomization to the experimental group was associated with finding (OR(95%CI) = 7.78(1.33–45.53), p = 0.02) and retaining (OR(95%CI) = 12.15(2.81–52.63), p < 0.01) work more often at twelve months. Analyses showed that the experimental and control group did not differ in decisional stress.ConclusionsOur stigma awareness intervention was effective for finding and retaining work. As the percentage of people who found and retained work almost doubled, this suggests that on a societal level, a vast number of unemployed people could be reemployed with a relatively simple intervention.Trial RegistrationThe study was retrospectively registered at the Dutch Trial Register (TRN: NL7798, date: 04-06-2019).

Dutch workers' attitudes towards having a coworker with mental health issues or illness: a latent class analysis.

Workplace mental health stigma is a major problem as it can lead to adverse occupational outcomes and reduced well-being. Although workplace climate is largely determined by managers and co-workers, the role of co-workers in workplace stigma is understudied. Therefore, the aims are: (1) to examine knowledge and attitudes towards having a coworker with Mental Health Issues or Illness (MHI), especially concerning the desire for social distance, (2) to identify distinct subgroups of workers based on their potential concerns towards having a coworker with MHI, and (3) to characterize these subgroups in terms of knowledge, attitudes, and background characteristics. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among a nationally representative internet panel of 1,224 Dutch workers who had paid jobs and did not hold management positions. Descriptive statistics and a three-step approach Latent Class Analysis (LCA) were used to address the research aims. Concerning the desire for social distance, 41.9% of Dutch workers indicated they did not want to have a close colleague with MHI, and 64.1% did not want to work for a higher-ranking manager who had MHI. In contrast however, most workers did not have negative experiences with interacting with coworkers with MHI (92.6%). Next, five distinct subgroups (SG) of workers were identified: two subgroups with few concerns towards having a coworker with MHI (SG1 and SG2; 51.8% of the respondents), one subgroup with average concerns (SG3; 22.7% of the respondents), and two subgroups with more concerns (SG4 and SG5; 25.6% of the respondents). Four out of five subgroups showed a high tendency towards the desire for social distance. Nevertheless, even in the subgroups with more concerns, (almost) half of the respondents were willing to learn more about how to best deal with coworkers with MHI. No significant differences were found between the subgroups on background characteristics. The high tendency to the desire for social distance seems to contrast with the low number of respondents who personally had negative experiences with workers with MHI in the workplace. This suggests that the tendency to socially exclude this group was not based on their own experience. The finding that a large group of respondents indicated to want to learn more about how to deal with a co-worker with MHI is promising. Destigmatizing interventions in the workplace are needed in order to create more inclusive workplaces to improve sustained employment of people with MHI. These interventions should focus on increasing the knowledge of workers about how to best communicate and deal with coworkers with MHI, they do not need to differentiate in background variables of workers.

Multiple Myeloma in People of Working Age: A Systematic Review and Evidence Synthesis of Experiences of Paid and Unpaid Work

Introduction. This review sought to synthesise the qualitative evidence pertaining to the experiences of myeloma patients and relatives of work, given the distinct symptom burden and illness trajectory. Methods and Designs. CINAHL, Medline, Web of Science, PsychINFO, SocIndex were searched on 22-Apr-2022. No limiters were used for language or date of publication. CASP was used for critical appraisal. An integrative synthesis was conducted to inductively construct analytic themes PROSPERO CRD42022323137. Results. 34 articles were included, published from 2004 to 2022. Nineteen were assessed as having low risk of bias, and four with moderate risk of bias. The following four themes were derived from analysis of the papers: (i) side effects, medicines, and stigma; (ii) relationships; (iii) creation and maintenance of identity; (iv) privilege and income. Conclusion. Myeloma impacts the engagement of patients and relatives in paid and unpaid work, yet very little is currently known on how the cancer impacts these important interdependent systems. Addressing workplace stigma, understanding the role of workplace relationships, the construction of self through work, interpreting data through a lens of life-course and, privilege offer helpful starting points.

Challenges and Prescriptions for Homeless Drug Users’ Social Reintegration; An Experience of Partnerships Between Iran and Europe NGOs

The research addressed challenges and prescriptions for reintegration of homeless people who use drugs. Data were collected through conducting semi-structured interviews. Twenty-nine participants were recruited. The primary codes were extracted and divided into two main categories of challenges and prescriptions; the former included becoming homeless after a long term recovery, workplace stigma, service users’ different cultural backgrounds, dismissing the 12-Step Program, message fatigue, negative effect of relapse on groups and cyberspace overuse; and the latter included connection by hook or by crook, abstinence-harm reduction orientation, organizational service collection, pushing boundaries of interventions, and expanding services umbrella.

Internalized stigma in mental health staff with lived experience of mental crises-Does the professional role protect against self-stigmatization?

The stigma of mental illness is widespread in the general population and also among healthcare and psychiatric professionals. Yet, research on the self-stigma of the latter is still limited. The purpose of this article was to assess self-stigma and its correlates in mental health professionals with lived experiences of mental crisis and treatment. In a cross-sectional exploratory research project, 182 mental health professionals with lived experiences of mental crisis and treatment from 18 psychiatric hospital departments in the German federal states of Berlin and Brandenburg were surveyed on their lived experiences, self-stigma, perceived stigma in the workplace, subjective vulnerability to crises, and meaningfulness of lived experiences. To investigate the relationships between the variables, manifest and latent correlation analyses were calculated. Results showed low levels of self-stigma and perceived public stigma in the workplace. Self-stigma was significantly and positively associated with workplace stigma and subjective vulnerability to crisis, but not with identification with lived experiences. The relationship between self-stigma, workplace stigma, and vulnerability should be investigated in terms of mutual causality in order to derive possible strategies of reducing self-stigma along with its detrimental effects. Possible reasons for the low levels of self-stigma are discussed in the light of limitations, including processes of self-selection, with highly self-stigmatizing individuals being possibly discouraged from participating. Strategies to enhance sampling quality are briefly discussed.

Stigma Toward Peer Specialists on Inpatient Units.

Stigma Toward Peer Specialists on Inpatient Units.

Assessment of psychological terror and its impact on mental health and quality of life in medical residents at a reference medical center in Mexico: A cross-sectional study.

Mobbing, particularly in medical residencies, can lead to psychological terror with lasting mental and physical health consequences. Its impact on Mexican residents, however, remains underexplored. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and associated factors of psychological terror among medical residents at a medical center in Mexico City. In a cross-sectional study, medical residents from various specialties were assessed for mobbing domains, quality of life, and anxiety/depression using the Leymann Inventory of Psychological Terror (LIPT), 36-Item Short Form Health Survey, Beck Depression Inventory-II, and Beck Anxiety Inventory, respectively. Psychological terror was defined as a LIPT score ≥ p80. Linear and binomial logistic regression models were used to explore independent predictors of mobbing and psychological terror. Of the 349 participants included (median age: 28; IQR: 27-30 years), 19.5% (95% CI: 15.5%-24.0%) were identified with psychological terror. Furthermore, 39% reported higher-degree trainees as mobbing perpetrators. Women in surgical residencies in their second or fifth year were found to experience higher levels of mobbing. Manifested bullying, workplace stigma, and inappropriate tasks were the most impacted mobbing domains. Anxiety, diminished mental health quality of life, and higher degree of medical specialization were independent predictors of mobbing. Meanwhile, increased anxiety, affiliation to surgical specialties, and being in the second or fifth year of training were identified as predictors of psychological terror. Mobbing and psychological terror are prevalent conditions among medical residents in Mexico. Identification of occupational conditions and adverse psychological stressors can help to improve quality of life and training of medical residents.

Workplace Stigmatism: The voices of mothers with disabled children

This qualitative study highlights the kinds of workplace stigma confronted by mothers of disabled children. It explores the forms of stigma that may be subtle yet could be detrimental to the mothers. This study also demonstrates how mothers are affected by and respond to workplace stigma. Five Malaysian mothers representing a variety of work structures and situations were engaged in the in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Text analysis reveals clear evidence that mothers are subjected to stigmatising treatments, consequently playing a significant role in their workplace engagement, career aspirations, and confidence. Keywords: Workplace, Stigma, Mothers, Disabled Children eISSN: 2398-4287 © 2022. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open-access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under the responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians/Africans/Arabians), and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning &amp; Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/ebpj.v7i21.3689