Workplace Norms Research Articles

Beyond Work-Life "Integration".

Research on the work-family interface began in the 1960s and has grown exponentially ever since. This vast amount of research, however, has had relatively little impact on workplace practice, and work-family conflict is at an all-time high. We review the work-family research to date and propose that a shift of attention is required, away from the individual experience of work and family and toward understanding how identity and status are defined at work. Several factors enshrine cherished identities around current workplace norms. The work devotion schema demands that those who are truly committed to their work will make it the central or sole focus of their lives, without family demands to distract them. Importantly, the work devotion schema underwrites valued class and gender identities: Work devotion is a key way of enacting elite class status and functions as the measure of a man--the longer the work hours and higher the demand for his attention, the better. Advocating change in the way work is done and life is lived meets resistance because it places these cherished identities at risk. Resistance to these identity threats keeps current workplace norms in place. This is why even the business case-which shows that current practices are not economically efficient-fails to persuade organizations to enact change. What is needed now is sustained attention to the implicit psychological infrastructure that cements the mismatch between today's workplace and today's workforce.

Employees’ perceptions of barriers to participation in training and development in small engineering businesses

Purpose– This paper aims to investigate barriers to employee participation in voluntary formal training and development opportunities from the perspective of employees in small engineering businesses.Design/methodology/approach– An exploratory qualitative methodology involving data collection via site visits and in-depth semi-structured interviews with 20 employees in five small engineering businesses was used. Interviews explored the role of developmental proactivity and employees’ perceptions of conditions in the immediate work environment and industry sector that represent barriers to their participation in formal training and development. Interview transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis.Findings– Three key findings are as follows. First, proactive behaviour regarding access to external training and development is muted in small business settings because of strong resource allocation norms. Second, factors in the internal work environment rather than the industry sector constitute the major barriers to training and development. Third, owner-managers and employees appear to have significantly differing perspectives of barriers to training and development.Research limitations/implications– The findings suggest avenues for future research. These include examining how workplace norms influence employee behaviour with regard to accessing formal training and development and investigating the learning strategies that employees use to compensate for a lack of access to training and development.Originality/value– Research into relatively low levels of employee participation in formal training and development in small businesses is deficient because it predominantly involves surveys of owner-managers’ opinions. This study is novel because it seeks to generate new insights not previously articulated by employees. The study yielded four propositions that have practical and research implications.

Unequal Treatment or Uneven Consequence: A Content Analysis of Americans with Disabilities Act Title I Disparate Impact Cases from 1992 – 2012

This study identified patterns and trends of litigation in all reported U.S. Appellate Court ADA cases charged under the theory of disparate impact (unintentional discrimination) from 1992 through 2012. The results produced four themes: accommodation(s); workplace culture, norms, and policies; judicial process; and policy space; and three relationships: gap-filling, weighing and balancing, and maintaining status quo versus effecting social change. The results may provide information about the types of workplace policies and procedures that are most frequently litigated. Disability scholars, advocates, and practitioners may be able to use the information to develop education and outreach strategies for employers on best practices for hiring, accommodating, and promoting employees with disabilities. The results may also be used to educate and inform advocates about the process of litigation. A greater understanding of how judges make decisions in a subset of ADA cases may increase employees with disabilities' ability to self-advocate in the workplace.

Wage Gender Disparities: Challenging Prevailing Assumptions, Theoretical Approaches

Women in the United States are, on average and consistently, earning less than their male peers. Sometimes, they are even paid less than the men they supervise. A common response concerns about the 23 cent gender wage gap for full-time year-round workers across occupations, is that it is simply a byproduct of the choices women make: choices to prefer family life and needs, work fewer hours, take on lower-paying jobs, or opt out of the workforce for longer periods of time than men. Under this view, the gender pay gap is not a result of sex discrimination but of women's preferences. The gap between the average salaries of men versus women is attributed to female behavior, decision-making and women's preferences rather than to a pre-existing, biased structure. I argue that this assumption is at least partially wrong. This paper offers a different perspective on gender analysis within the discourse about wage gender disparities. In this paper I argue that payment systems are neither neutral nor objective. Inspired by Schultz’s work, I contend that women’s preferences are in fact a result of the discrimination they face at workplaces and not the cause, as the common misconception posits. I further claim that this misinformed belief in women’s preferences is a concept commonly held by legislators and governmental policymakers as well as by employers, male and female workers, and the public in general. Furthermore, the reality of the gender pay gap causes women, as rational decision makers, to take other venues away from discriminating and segregated workplaces resulting in lower wages. In effect, women act rationally when adopting the gender pay gap rules of the game. If true opportunities were to appear more often, women might take them. Therefore, workplace norms, rather than women’s desire to avoid a full-time commitment to work, lead to a discriminative pay gap against women (as well as other excluded groups). Hidden mechanisms (“bricks” reinforcing the glass ceiling) have created a structure which has led to both establishing and perpetuating gender gaps in salary. These main arguments are innovatively supported by three channels. First, by a theoretical approach explaining the narrow summit of the hierarchical structure of workplaces. Second, by comparing US data about gender pay gap with other countries. Third, by proving the perception false, relying on studies regarding (1) childless women who face unequal pay, (2) payment by the hour, (3) employer bias and stereotypes, (4) economic reasoning: budgeting on women’s backs and (5) the different behavior of women and men in workplaces: negotiating and working patterns. The study may help eliminate gender pay gap, a mission which has not yet been achieved with the intensive existing regulation. We cannot fully understand and resolve the pay gap unless we understand the lack of true, decent and egalitarian opportunities that are accessible to women, enabling them to earn high salaries under good working conditions.

Ode to the Sea: Workplace Organizations and Norms of Cooperation

The functioning and well-being of any society and organisation hinges on norms of cooperation that regulate social activities. There is no empirical evidence on how such norms emerge and in which environments they thrive remains a clear void in the literature. We compare behaviour in Brazilian fishermen societies that differ in the workplace organisation. In one society (by the sea), fishermen are forced to work in groups, whereas in the adjacent society (on a lake) fishing is inherently an individual activity. We report that the sea fishermen trust and cooperate more and have greater ability to coordinate group actions than their lake counterparts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnicity and cultural values as predictors of the occurrence and impact of experienced workplace incivility.

Workplace incivility is a subtle type of deviant work behavior that is low in intensity and violates workplace norms of respect. Past research demonstrates the harmful impact of incivility on work attitudes and employee wellbeing; however, little is known about how incivility is experienced by individuals of different ethnicities and cultural orientations. In the current study, we compared the amount and impact of workplace incivility that was experienced by Hispanic and white, non-Hispanic employees. Further, we examined whether cultural dimensions of vertical and horizontal individualism and collectivism moderated the relationships between workplace incivility and work and health outcomes. A sample of 262 university employees (50% Hispanic; 63% female) provided self-reports of experienced incivility, burnout, job satisfaction, and cultural values. Although male Hispanic employees experienced more incivility, female Hispanic employees experienced less incivility than non-Hispanic employees of the same gender. Hispanic employees displayed greater resilience against the impact of incivility on job satisfaction and burnout, compared with non-Hispanic employees. Additionally, employees with strong horizontal collectivism values (emphasizing sociability) were more resilient against the impact of incivility on burnout, whereas employees with strong horizontal individualism values (emphasizing self-reliance) were more susceptible to burnout and dissatisfaction when faced with incivility. These findings suggest that employees' ethnicity and cultural values may increase or decrease their vulnerability to the impact of incivility at work.

Gender Diversity on Boards: Beyond Quotas

Worldwide there is a growing interest in increasing the number of women on boards. Quotas have been proposed in many countries as a way to address this problem, but it is not universally accepted as the right approach. Nevertheless, it is apparent that change is needed as women continue to represent minorities on boards of some of the largest companies. Moreover, increasing the number of women on boards can be beneficial to firms. While it is not clear whether there is a positive relationship between increasing the number of women on boards and firm profitability, it is clearer that women make positive contributions to the board decision-making process. As a result, increasing the number of women on boards improves the quality of decisions made by the board. Given the benefits increased numbers of women on boards can produce for companies and countries' lacklustre interest in quotas, this paper canvasses methods by which boards can increase female representation without relying on quotas. As such, it looks to practices adopted by American football teams, Australian mentoring programs, and UK disclosure rules. It also examines existing workplace norms and practices which inhibit female labour participation. In doing so, it proposes alternative approaches by which countries can increase gender diversity on boards.

Can We Finish the Revolution? Gender, Work-Family Ideals, and Institutional Constraint.

Why has progress toward gender equality in the workplace and at home stalled in recent decades? A growing body of scholarship suggests that persistently gendered workplace norms and policies limit men's and women's ability to create gender egalitarian relationships at home. In this article, we build on and extend prior research by examining the extent to which institutional constraints, including workplace policies, affect young, unmarried men's and women's preferences for their future work-family arrangements. We also examine how these effects vary across levels of education. Drawing on original survey-experimental data, we ask respondents how they would like to structure their future relationships while experimentally manipulating the degree of institutional constraint under which they state their preferences. Two clear patterns emerge. First, as constraints are removed and men and women can opt for an egalitarian relationship, the majority of them choose this option, regardless of gender or education level. Second, women's relationship structure preferences are more malleable to the removal of institutional constraints via supportive work-family policy interventions than are men's. These findings shed light on important questions about the role of institutions in shaping work-family preferences, underscoring the notion that seemingly gender-traditional work-family decisions are largely contingent on the constraints of current workplaces.

The effects of civility on advice, leadership, and performance.

Workplace incivility is rampant and on the rise-with costs to individuals and organizations. Despite the increased need for civility, little is known about potential individual benefits of civility, defined as behavior involving politeness and regard for others in the workplace, within workplace norms for respect (Andersson & Pearson, 1999). Recent research has suggested that being civil may be hazardous to influence, power, and income (see Forni, 2002; Judge et al., 2012).Yet, throughout history, civil behavior has been extolled because it paid dividends to the person who behaved well. The focus of this research is whether that holds true in organizations. Using social exchange theory, we developed hypotheses about how civility benefits people, and investigated this in 2 studies. First, in a 2-wave social network study of a research and development department (n = 31) of a biotechnology firm, we found that people who perceived a colleague as civil would be more likely to seek that person out for work advice and to see that person as a leader. The more the individual was perceived as civil by others in his or her network, the better his or her performance. Being sought out for work advice and being viewed as a leader mediated this effect. In the second experiment (n = 162), we extended our understanding of what drove these benefits. We found that people who are civil were perceived as warm and competent, and these positive perceptions, in turn, helped to explain the benefits garnered. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.

Following the Crowd: Leisure Complementarities beyond the Household

Leisure externalities across households have important implications for labor market regulations but have proven very difficult to identify. This paper exploits the unique features of school holidays and paid leave regulations in France to show that exogenous increases in the amount of leisure time enjoyed by workers living with children induce very significant increases in the demand for leisure of workers living in other households. We also provide evidence that these cross effects are driven by complementarities in nonmarket time rather than workplace norms or workplace externalities.

Home is Private…Do Not Enter! Introversion and Sensitivity to Work–Home Conflict

This study examined extraversion as a moderator of the relationship between negative work-home conflict and stress-related outcomes among US employees using conservation of resources theory and privacy regulation theory. Introverts only experienced stronger negative effects of negative work-home conflict on work-related resource depletion (job burnout, low engagement, low satisfaction with balance) rather than general resource depletion (personal burnout) and strain (physical and psychological). This finding suggests that introverts selectively withdraw from the work domain to conserve resources when privacy at home is threatened. Employers may want to consider ways to help introverts increase work-home segmentation, such as reducing workplace norms that encourage employees to be continuously accessible. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Trainee chefs' experiences of alcohol, tobacco and drug use

Abstract Trainee chefs beginning work for the first time are vulnerable to risky levels of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use. The present study explores the nature and extent of AOD use among this population, drivers of use, and correspondence with the stress, availability, social norms, and culture theories of employee substance use. Nine focus groups were conducted with trainee chefs from two Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges in New South Wales. Trainees' experiences of working in commercial cookery, working conditions, and AOD use were explored, and themes identified. Participants ( N = 69) reported high levels of alcohol, illicit drug and tobacco use, but perceived this to be due to personal rather than work-related factors. Despite this, responses indicated that workplace factors did play a substantial role. In particular, work stress, social norms, and AOD accessibility contributed to a workplace culture that facilitated substance use. Results suggest that young chefs are heavily influenced by workplace norms regarding AOD use but seem to be largely unaware of the relationship between working conditions and alcohol and drug use. Interventions are required to raise trainees' awareness of this relationship, and to build their capacity to respond appropriately. Implications for prevention strategies are discussed.

Updating the Organization MAN: An Examination of Involved Fathering in the Workplace

While the organization man was once synonymous with being an “ideal worker” who prioritized work over family, men's increased involvement in childrearing has changed the meaning and value placed on fatherhood. Little, however, is known about how this “involved fathering” shapes identities, work experiences, and work-related outcomes for fathers. Drawing on qualitative and quantitative studies, we explore the complexities associated with how men experience fatherhood in the context of their work, and examine workplace and professional norms that may inhibit them from being the kinds of involved fathers they espouse a desire to be. We find that involved fathering has positive work-related outcomes that can benefit organizations. More involved fathers experience greater job satisfaction and work–family enrichment and less work–family conflict, and they are less likely to think about quitting their jobs. Although we find that more involved fathers have lowered career identity, this is offset by perceived mana...

Remuneration and absenteeism on a large construction site

While scholarly consensus is that construction absenteeism is a serious and widespread problem, aggregate US and Canadian data show construction absenteeism rates substantially below cross-industry averages. While construction absenteeism research focuses on workplace culture and norms, contractors continue to manage absenteeism primarily as an individual problem. While remuneration and labour market conditions are generally acknowledged to influence construction absenteeism, little research has focused on these factors. High labour turnover in construction resolves the first two conundrums. Adapting to higher labour turnover by limiting investment in firm-specific human capital, contractors are quicker to fire absent workers reducing construction’s measured absentee rates. Higher labour turnover also constrains contractors’ ability to shape workplace culture while facilitating the individual treatment of absentee workers. The construction absentee literature’s methodological focus on workplace surveys explains the absence of research on labour market conditioning of construction absenteeism. This case study using payroll data from a large, unionized US industrial construction site shows not only that absenteeism leads to discharge, but also, that absenteeism is a precursor of both quits and discharges for reasons other than absenteeism. Furthermore, a 1 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate reduced the probability that a worker would be fired for absenteeism by 48%; a $100 increase in weekly overtime pay reduced a worker’s probability of being fired for absenteeism by 27% and a $100 increase in per diem or travel pay reduced a worker’s probability of being fired for absenteeism by 75%.

To See Ourselves As Others See Us? Incorporating the Constraining Role of Socio‐Cultural Practices in the Theorization of Micropolitical Resistance

In this paper, I explore micro‐political resistance (defined as resistance at the level of meanings, identity or subjectivity) within the context of professional part‐time working. Using Skeggs' (1997) notion of dialogical recognition, which refers to an individual's identification with negative portrayals of the social categories to which they belong, I argue that in transgressing dominant (and taken‐for‐granted) workplace norms, part‐time professionals experience guilt and a sense that they may not be fulfilling their professional obligations. Based on a qualitative study of part‐time working in the UK police service, I show how part‐time professionals navigate these feelings by both drawing attention to the instrumental value of conforming to certain work‐based norms, specifically long hours, and by refusing deployment to tasks and roles that they see as peripheral to their professional identities. It is through such refusals, I argue, that the micropolitical resistance I illustrate in this paper can be understood as effective because of its impact on how everyday routines are performed.

The Infrastructure of School Culture: Measuring Commitment, Discourse, Efficacy, and Sensemaking in Adequate Yearly Progress

<p><em>While achievement test results lead to <strong>after-the-fact</strong> AYP results, this research delves into measures behind and beyond test scores, </em>the <strong><em>matter-of-fact</em></strong><em> workplace norms of schools. Elementary teachers completed items in the VISTAA survey as analysis revealed five constructs of school culture: commitment to student learning, commitment to collegiality, discourse, efficacy, and sensemaking. As a single aggregate factor, defined standard deviation gains in the school culture composite increased the likelihood of attaining AYP by 81%. The results also show positive associations for individual predictors concerning the infrastructure of school culture with the outcome of AYP.</em><em></em></p>

Whistle‐blowing and workplace culture in older peoples' care: qualitative insights from the healthcare and social care workforce

Inquiries in the UK into mistreatment of older people by healthcare employees over the last 30 years have focused on introducing or supporting employee whistle-blowing. Although whistle-blowers have made an important contribution to patient safety it remains a controversial activity. The fate of whistle-blowers is bleak, often resulting in personal and professional sacrifices. Here we draw on the views of healthcare and social care employees working with older people to explore perceptions of whistle-blowing as well as alternative strategies that may be used to raise concerns about the mistreatment of patients by co-workers. Whistle-blowing was perceived as a negative term. Managers said they promoted open cultures underpinned by regular team meetings and an open-door ethos. Others described workplace norms that were somewhat at odds with these open culture ideals. Whistle-blowing was considered risky, and this led to staff creating informal channels through which to raise concerns. Those who witnessed wrongdoing were aware that support was available from external agencies but preferred local solutions and drew upon personal ethics rather than regulatory edicts to shape their responses. We argue that the importance of workplace relationships and informal channels for raising concerns should be better understood to help prevent the mistreatment of vulnerable groups.

Religion in the Workplace: Eweida and Others v United Kingdom

The European Court of Human Rights judgment in Eweida and Others v United Kingdom dealt with the increasingly controversial questions of religious symbols at work and the clash between free conscience and anti‐discrimination norms. In a change of approach, it held that the right to resign could no longer be seen as adequate protection for religious freedom and that workplace norms that restrict religious liberty must satisfy a proportionality test. However, it accorded a wide margin of appreciation to States in reconciling freedom of conscience and freedom from discrimination, ruling that the importance of non‐discrimination could justify a failure to exempt a religious individual from complying with a policy forbidding discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation.

The Use of Communication Technology to Manage Work-Home Boundaries

Communication technologies have facilitated workers’ ability to integrate the home and work domains; however, these tools have also allowed each domain to more frequently intrude into the other. We examined workplace policies and norms, individual preferences, and family norms and expectations as antecedents of connectivity behaviors that utilize communication technologies to bridge the boundaries between home and work. The control of interruptions from communication technology was examined as a moderator of the relationship between connectivity behavior and work-family conflict. Data were gathered from employees of two universities (n = 290). We found that being required to be connected after hours and role integration preference were associated with higher levels of connectivity behaviors. Connectivity behaviors were not associated with work-family conflict, nor was there support was for the proposed moderator. Job type and hours worked after hours were significantly associated with both connectivity behavior and work-family conflict.

Impact of Workplace Incivility on Satisfaction and Burnout: Moderating Effects of Cultural Values

Workplace incivility is a subtle type of deviant work behavior that is low in intensity and violates workplace norms of respect. Past research demonstrates the harmful impact of incivility on work ...