Variation Of Work Research Articles

Behavioral economics perspectives on public sector pension plans.

We describe the pension plan features of the states and the largest cities and counties in the U.S. Unlike in the private sector, defined benefit (DB) pensions are still the norm in the public sector. However, a few jurisdictions have shifted toward defined contribution (DC) plans as their primary savings plan, and fiscal pressures are likely to generate more movement in this direction. Holding fixed a public employee's work and salary history, we show that DB retirement income replacement ratios vary greatly across jurisdictions. This creates large variation in workers' need to save for retirement in other accounts. There is also substantial heterogeneity across jurisdictions in the savings generated in primary DC plans because of differences in the level of mandatory employer and employee contributions. One notable difference between public and private sector DC plans is that public sector primary DC plans are characterized by required employee or employer contributions (or both), whereas private sector plans largely feature voluntary employee contributions that are supplemented by an employer match. We conclude by applying lessons from savings behavior in private sector savings plans to the design of public sector plans.

Understanding changes over time in workers' compensation claim rates using time series analytical techniques

ObjectiveThe objective of this study is to better understand the inter-temporal variation in workers' compensation claim rates using time series analytical techniques not commonly used in the occupational health and...

Behavioral Economics Perspectives on Public Sector Pension Plans

We describe the pension plan features of the states and the largest cities and counties in the U.S. Unlike in the private sector, defined benefit (DB) pensions are still the norm in the public sector. However, a few jurisdictions have shifted towards defined contribution (DC) plans as their primary savings plan, and fiscal pressures are likely to generate more movement in this direction. Holding fixed a public employee‘s work and salary history, we show that DB retirement income replacement ratios vary greatly across jurisdictions. This creates large variation in workers‘ need to save for retirement in other accounts. There is also substantial heterogeneity across jurisdictions in the savings generated in primary DC plans because of differences in the level of mandatory employer and employee contributions. One notable difference between public and private sector DC plans is that public sector primary DC plans are characterized by required employee or employer contributions (or both), whereas private sector plans largely feature voluntary employee contributions that are supplemented by an employer match. We conclude by applying lessons from savings behavior in private sector savings plans to the design of public sector plans.

The Challenges of Building Theory by Combining Lenses

The Challenges of Building Theory by Combining Lenses

Competition, Group Identity, and Social Networks in the Workplace: Evidence from a Chinese Textile Firm

Using data on team assignment and weekly output for all weavers in an urban Chinese textile firm between April 2003 and March 2004, this paper studies a) how randomly assigned teammates affect an individual worker's behavior under a tournament-style incentive scheme, and b) how such effects interact with exogenously formed social networks in the manufacturing workplace. First, we find that a worker's performance improves when the average ability of her teammates increases. Second, we exploit the exogenous variations in workers' origins in the presence of the well-documented social divide between urban resident workers and rural migrant workers in large urban Chinese firms, and show that the coworker effects are only present if the teammates are of a different origin. In other words, workers do not act on pecuniary incentives to outperform teammates who are from the same social network. Our results point to the important role of group identities in overcoming self-interests and facilitating altruistic behavior.

Compensation patterns for healthcare workers in British Columbia, Canada

Objectives:This report examines relationships between the acceptance of compensation claims, and employee and workplace characteristics for healthcare workers in British Columbia, Canada to determine suitability of using only accepted claims...

Stabilization versus Insurance: Welfare Effects of Procyclical Taxation under Incomplete Markets

We construct and calibrate a general equilibrium business cycle model with unemployment and precautionary saving. We compute the cost of business cycles and locate the optimum in a set of simple cyclical fiscal policies. Our economy exhibits productivity shocks, giving firms an incentive to hire more when productivity is high. However, business cycles make workers' income riskier, both by increasing the unconditional probability of unusually long unemployment spells, and by making wages more variable, and therefore they decrease social welfare by around one-fourth or one-third of 1% of consumption. Optimal fiscal policy offsets the cycle, holding unemployment benefits constant but varying the tax rate procyclically to smooth hiring. By running a deficit of 4% to 5% of output in recessions, the government eliminates half the variation in the unemployment rate, most of the variation in workers' aggregate consumption, and most of the welfare cost of business cycles.

Age Variations in Workers' Value of Statistical Life

This paper develops a life-cycle model in which workers choose both consumption levels and job fatality risks, implying that the effect of age on the value of life is ambiguous. The empirical analysis of this relationship uses novel, age-dependent fatal and nonfatal risk variables. Workers' value of statistical life exhibits an inverted U-shaped relationship over workers' life cycle based on hedonic wage model estimates, age-specific hedonic wage estimates, and a minimum distance estimator. The value of statistical life for a 60-year old ranges from $2.5 million to $3.0 million -- less than half the value for 30 to 40-year olds.

Use of Inhalable Cr+6 Exposures to Characterize Urinary Chromium Concentrations in Plating Industry Workers

Use of Inhalable Cr+6 Exposures to Characterize Urinary Chromium Concentrations in Plating Industry Workers: Jyh‐Larng Chen, et al. Department of Environmental Engineering and Health, Yuanpei Technology College—In this study, both personal sampling and biological monitoring were conducted on 27 and 30 workers selected from decorative plating and hard‐surface plating operation, respectively. For personal sampling, the inhalable aerosol sampling technique was adopted in order to measure worker's soluble Cr+6 exposure level (CINH) on the last day of the workweek. For biological monitoring, a urine specimen was collected at the end of the shift on the last day of the work week in order to determine a worker's urinary chromium concentration (CURINE). Results show that hard‐surface plating workers had higher CINH (arithmetic mean = 25.2 μg/m3) than decorative plating workers (arithmetic mean = 1.91 μg/ m3). The above results could be due to the longer plating time involved in the former plating operation than in the latter. The relationship between CmH and CURINE was found as CURINE= 1.86 CINH‐0.21 (R2=0.87, n=57), which suggests that the inhalable aerosol sampling results were able to explain the variation in workers' urinary chromium concentrations up to 87%. Assuming the level of CINH was equivalent to the current TLV‐TWA of 50 μg/ m3, the above regression model yielded a level of CURINE as approximately 93 μg/g‐creatinine. The above value is clearly different from the current present biological exposure index BEI of 30 μg/g‐creatinine which is known to be applicable only to welding workers. The above discrepancy could be due to the intrinsic difference in particle size distribution between the Cr+6 droplets generated during the plating process and Cr+6 fumes generated during the welding process. Considering that no BEI has been suggested for chromium plating industries, the result obtained in this study will be helpful in introducing a new BEI in the future.

A study on setting standard time using work achievement quotient

A method is proposed for setting standard time using a work achievement quotient approach. As an example, the vehicle safety inspection service for fork-lift trucks is considered. Conventionally, standard time has been set using a Predetermined Time System (PTS) method such as the Work Factor (WF) and Method-Time Measurement (MTM) methods or using a stopwatch method. The PTS method sometimes may be inappropriate because the analysis is too much trouble when the method is used for a work of a small manufacturing volume or of a long cycle time. Although simpler WF methods like the Ready Work Factor (RWF) method, etc., have been developed, users of these methods are expected to be trained and have completed hands-on analytical practice through a formal training course and to acquire the necessary skills in order to obtain accurate time measurements. When the stopwatch method is used to conduct the rating, subjective impressions can influence the results. To obtain accurate time measurements, a thorough training using films, etc., is necessary. In contrast, the method for setting standard time using the work achievement quotient approach can grasp individual variation of workers in time sequence and evaluate it dynamically. Thus, calculation is possible using a small statistical sample.

Inter- and intra-individual sources of variation in levels of urinary styrene metabolites.

Given the paucity of studies that have examined variability in biological measures of exposure to workplace contaminants, we quantified the intra- and inter-individual sources of variation in urinary levels of mandelic acid (MA) and phenylglyoxylic acid (PGA) among workers exposed to styrene. A secondary objective was to examine effects of job task and the timing of sampling during the workweek on the variation in workers' urinary styrene metabolite levels. As part of routine biological monitoring, a total of 1,714 measurements of MA and PGA collected from 331 workers between 1985 and 1999 from eight reinforced-plastics plants were abstracted from laboratory reports. To evaluate sources of variation in levels of urinary styrene metabolites, we applied random-effects models. The influence of job task and day of sampling on metabolite levels was examined using mixed-effects models. PGA levels were characterized by less variation than levels of MA, as were metabolite levels expressed in terms of urinary creatinine concentration. The relative magnitude of the inter-individual to the intra-individual source of variation was generally higher for post-shift urine samples than for pre-shift urine samples. As expected, urinary metabolite levels were highest for laminators and for samples collected at the latter end of the workweek. Owing to the effects of variation from day-to-day, estimates of workers' exposures that rely on single measurements would generally perform poorly in a regression analysis designed to examine effects resulting from chronic exposure. However, the bias in an observed slope coefficient would be diminished if a second or third urine sample were collected. Quantification of the intra- and inter-individual sources of variation provides useful information that can be used to design optimal sampling strategies, which would allow for the collection of sufficient data to estimate workers' exposures reliably when evaluating health risks associated with occupational contaminants.

Evaluation of doctor-worker encounters in occupational health: an explanatory study.

In this paper workers' evaluations of various types of doctor-worker encounters in occupational health (the open consultation hour, required visits after absence from work and visits for periodic medical examination) are described and explored. The aim was a better understanding of the consultation processes and its determinants in the field of occupational health. Semistructured interviews were conducted in a sample of 313 employees. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were carried out in order to explain the variations in the outcome parameters. The quantitative analysis showed that workers' evaluation of their encounter with the occupational physician was rather indeterminate and only correlated positively with the variable 'meeting workers' expectations'. The qualitative analysis generated a classification of the variety of workers' expectations. In the Role Differentiation Model this classification of workers' expectations is related to three specific role aspects: the expert-, the counsellor- and the mediator-role aspect. The model assumes that the occupational physician should be able perform the behavioural requirements of these role aspects, in order to meet the expectations of the workers in various situations. The Role Differentiation Model is a hypothetical model, partly based on the outcome of the study, which explains the variation in workers' evaluations and could also be used to develop practice guidelines.

Worker Interdependence and Output: The Hawthorne Studies Reevaluated

Recent work has called into question the interpretation of the evidence from the classic Hawthorne studies, arguing that external factors suffice to explain the variation in workers' output found at the Hawthorne plant. In contrast, this paper demonstrates that, allowing for a wide range of other factors mediated by the social interactions in the working group, workers' productivity levels in the Hawthorne plant were indeed interdependent. Using five years of weekly data from the original Hawthorne studies, a structural model of worker productivity is estimated. This model allowsfor interdependence of workers' output levels, while recognizing that, although mediated by small group interactions, external and experimental variables can also play a role. The results reveal the joint importance of externalfactors and worker interaction in affecting the level and variability of output. The human relations approach to industrial sociology is not controverted by the original Hawthorne data from which it began. 'TIhe Hawthorne studies of the late 1920s and early 1930s have had widespread influence in industrial sociology and provide the foundation for the sub-fields of human relations, organizational development and organizational design (Roethlisberger and Dickson 1939; Whitehead 1938; Homans 1951). Beginning with what in retrospect appear to be naive attempts to relate worker productivity to the intensity of illumination in the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric, the studies elaborated the role of social interaction in the determination of work effort and output levels. The increasing complexity of such interactions that the Hawthorne researchers found and explored - first in the Illumination and the Relay Room experiments, later in the Mica Splitting Test Room and the Bank Wiring Observation Room -changed many ways of thinking about the labor process and, whatever the current status of the Hawthorne studies themselves, altered forever the landscape of industrial sociology. Major works

The epidemiology of lung cancer in Xuan Wei, China; Current progress, issues, and research strategies

Heavy physical workload for long hours coupled with increasing workplace heat exposure due to rising temperatures stemming from climate change, especially where there are inadequate prevention and control policies, adversely affect workers' health and safety, productive capacity and social well-being. However, variations in workers' concerns and awareness of occupational heat stress and climate change risks impede the effectiveness of heat stress management. A mixed method approach was used to assess climate change perceptions and occupational heat stress risks and adaptation strategies of Ghanaian mining workers. Questionnaires and focus group discussions were used to collect data from 320 respondents. Quantitative and qualitative approaches were used for data analysis. Workers' climate change risk perception, as confirmed by trends in climate data, was reasonable, but concerns about climate change effects and workplace heat exposure risks varied significantly across types of mining activity (p < 0.001). Workers experienced heat-related morbidities, but the variation in heat-related morbidity experiences across the type of mining activity was not significant. However, the type of heat-related morbidities experienced by workers differed across the type of mining activity (p < 0.001). Workers' awareness of occupational heat stress prevention and control was adequate. The disparities in workers' awareness and use of the prevention and control measures significantly differed across the type of mining activity (p < 0.001). Occupational heat stress prevention activities should focus on workers, and a concerted effort must be made to promote workers' adaptive capacity and inform policy decisions.

In Search of Working-Class Ideology: A Test of Two Perspectives

This article begins as a test of two types of explanation of working-class consciousness. The first focuses upon structural factors. The second identifies nonwork variables as the critical determinant of workers' consciousness. Based on information collected from manual workers in two plants in Edmonton, Canada, the present research finds that neither perspective emerges as a significant determinant of worker ideology. The second part of the article addresses this issue and offers an explanation of the failure to account for much of the variation in workers' ideological thinking.

Workers' Compensation, Job Hazards, and Wages

Competitive theory implies that compensating wage differentials will be paid to workers in hazardous employment, but only to the extent that employees are liable for risk. This prediction suggests that previous estimates of wage-risk premiums may be biased as a result of the failure to control for variations in workers' compensation benefits across states. The authors of this paper test an empirical model of compensating wage differentials that includes a measure of employer liability. For nonunion workers, they find that significant wage premiums are paid for an increased probability or severity of nonfatal injury; a slight downward bias in these estimates results from omitting the liability variable; and increases in employers' costs of workers' compensation are offset dollar-for-dollar by reduced wages. For union workers, however, the evidence on compensating differentials is mixed, and there is no suggestion of a trade-off between wages and the costs of workers' compensation.

A morphometric study of worker variation in threeMyrmecia species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Myrmecia froggatti Forel andM. varians Mayr workers show monomorphism with limited size variability, while those ofM. simillima exhibit biphasic monomorphism with considerable size variation. Coefficient of variability values calculated for four characters provided a good measure of species size variation. Frequency histograms of head length against head width were distinetly unimodal in one colony ofM. froggatti and three colonies ofM. varians, and bimodal in the five colonies ofM. simillima.

Organizational Size, Orientation to Work and Industrial Behaviour

Evidence regarding the inverse relationship between organizational size and organizational attachment (measured by rates of absenteeism and labour turnover) is examined. Two intervening variables have been isolated by previous studies, namely: functional specialization and bureaucratization. The manner in which these concepts have been used is examined critically. It is concluded that functional specialization varies independently of size and should therefore be excluded from consideration in any attempt to provide an explanation of the `size effect'. On the other hand, it is argued that the level of bureaucratization is directly associated with size, and several consequences of a low level of bureaucratization for attachment in the small firm are specified. However, this approach to the problem, which concentrates solely on the socio-technical structure of the organization, neglects possible variations in workers' orientations to work. It is suggested that, basically, two different orientations can be distinguished. Such orientations are to be looked upon as important intervening variables; it is argued that a high level of organizational attachment is a result of congruence between orientation to work and organizational control structure. Finally methods of demonstrating the independence of orientations to work are considered.