Work Redesign Research Articles

Burnout Syndrome and the Work Design of Education and Health Care Professionals

Abstract This study aimed to identify the predictive power of the Work Design (WD) variables on Burnout Syndrome (BS). The sample consisted of 300 professionals, 188 from the field of education and 112 from health care. Two instruments were used in this research, a reduced version of the Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) and the Brazilian version of the Spanish Burnout Syndrome Inventory (SBI). The results showed that in both professional categories, the factors of work design are predictors of the 4 dimensions of BS, especially factors related to social and task characteristics. In the education field, characteristics of knowledge required by work appear as predictors of only psychological exhaustion; and in health care professionals, as predictors of psychological exhaustion and decreased Enthusiasm towards the job. Implications of these findings will be discussed in terms of their applicability in interventions to prevent BS based on work redesign actions.

Saturation Carrying Capacity for Group A Particles in a Circulating Fluidized Bed

Empirical models continue to play a significant role in the design process of multiphase chemical reactors, particularly riser reactors in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) processes. It is imperative that accurate, industrial relevant correlations are developed to aid these design efforts. Using poor correlations could result in startup issues and significant redesign work. In this work, a new correlation is proposed to predict the saturation carrying capacity of Geldart Group A particles. This new correlation improves upon the currently available correlations for these materials and covers a broad range of Geldart Group A particles (particle diameters from 52 to 70 µm, and Archimedes numbers ranging from 5 to 20), superficial gas velocities (1 to 4 m/s), and riser diameters (0.066 to 0.3048 m). The new correlation has an Absolute Average Percent Deviation of only 17.6%, making it the most accurate correlation for Geldart Group A particles in the current literature.

When Unnecessary Tasks Weigh Heavily on the Back: A Diary Study on Musculoskeletal Pain.

Auxiliary tasks such as administrative work often include tasks that are unnecessary in the view of workers but still have to be done. These tasks can threaten a worker's self-esteem. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of unnecessary and unreasonable tasks on musculoskeletal pain. Fifty-five office workers (29 male; mean age = 41.96, SD = 14.2 years) reported their unnecessary and unreasonable tasks at the beginning of the study and kept a diary of their daily musculoskeletal pain over 5 weeks, using a visual analogue scale. Other work-related risk factors (prolonged sitting), job resources (participation in decision-making), and individual risk factors (sex, smoking, exercise, body mass index, maladaptive back beliefs) were controlled for in multilevel regression analysis. Multilevel regression analysis with 742 reports showed unnecessary tasks (B = 4.27, p = .006)-but not unreasonable tasks (B = 3.05, p = .074)-to predict the daily intensity of musculoskeletal pain, beyond other significant risk factors, such as prolonged sitting (B = 2.06, p = .039), body mass index (B = 1.52, p < .001), and maladaptive back beliefs (B = 3.78, p = .003). Participation in decision-making was not a significant protective factor (B = -1.67, p = .176). The higher frequency of unnecessary tasks-compared with unreasonable tasks-could place workers at risk for musculoskeletal pain. Work redesign that reduces unnecessary and unreasonable tasks can make a valuable contribution to worker health and safety among office workers.

Intra and Inter-professional working: how have pharmacists’ working practices changed during the COVID-19 pandemic?

IntroductionCOVID-19 has acted as a catalyst for radical changes in the working practices of pharmacists. While there is emerging evidence of adaptability mitigating burnout amongst pharmacists in other countries (1), what has yet to be established is the extent to which the well-being and resilience of pharmacists in the UK may be supported through changes in intra and inter-professional working practices.AimAs part of a wider project aiming to explore the impact of COVID-19 on pharmacists’ wellbeing and resilience, in this abstract we present findings exploring the impact on working relationships within pharmacy and multidisciplinary teams.MethodsAn online questionnaire containing validated measures of wellbeing and resilience and free-text open questions exploring the impact of COVID-19 on working practices was piloted on five practising pharmacists. This questionnaire was subsequently distributed via social media and professional networks in June 2020. Convenience sampling was used whereby any UK-registered pharmacist in a patient-facing role was eligible to take part. Inductive thematic analysis of the free text responses was conducted. This abstract presents one key theme; intra and inter-professional relationships.ResultsA total of 202 questionnaires were completed (Table 1), with 192 participants entering free-text responses.Table 1:Demographic information of pharmacists completing the online questionnaire Number (%) Sector (n=200*) Community56 (28%)GP practice10 (5%)Hospital111 (56%)Other16 (8%)Split role7 (4%) Employment status (n=200*) Business owner3 (2%)Employee189 (95%)Self-employed6 (3%)Other2 (1%) Working hours (n=200*) Full time135 (68%)Part time60 (30%)Variable2 (1.5%)Other3 (1%) Returned to practice in response to pandemic (n=198*) Yes17** (9%)No181 (91%) Year of registration as pharmacist (n=200*) Range1979–2020Median2006Mode2013, 2019 Gender (n=201*) Female150 (75%)Male51 (25%) Caring for dependents at home (n=195*) Yes84 (43%)No111 (57%)* Number of participants completing each question** 7 community, 9 hospital, 1 otherParticipants reported pharmacy teams becoming closer, supporting one another and working more cohesively. Work redesign and staff upskilling were given as positive examples of practice change in response to the pandemic. Reported challenges included managing conflict within a team due to heightened stress, sustaining staff morale, exhaustion, and prioritising others to the detriment of their own wellbeing: “I have no time for myself as I'm too busy keeping the day to day working and supporting my team emotionally. I'm emotionally exhausted and at home I withdraw and ignore the outside world as I'm at breaking point but don’t want my colleagues to see this.”Inter-professional relationships sometimes improved as a result of more effective communication, extended networking and pharmacists feeling valued and recognised as integral to multidisciplinary working. Supportive inter-professional working was described as a “Great sense of comradery - we're in this together”. Yet for others, inter-professional working proved challenging, with non-engagement of clinicians, frequently changing guidance from senior management, and restricted staff interaction due to remote or shift working.ConclusionsWhilst for some the pandemic facilitated improved inter- and intra- professional interactions, for others this was viewed as challenges of daily practice. Due to recruiting via social media, this study is limited by the response numbers and is therefore not representative of all UK registered pharmacists. However, a key strength is that pharmacists from all sectors of practice responded, in comparison to other studies which have focused solely on community pharmacists. Results from this study can be used to support sustainable change in fostering collaborative working within pharmacy and multi-professional healthcare teams.

Headwinds to Redesign

A half-century ago, Winston Royce warned us that, in practice, a waterfall process “is risky and invites failure.” In a twist, Michael Keeling warns us that, in practice, teams using an iterative process will drag their feet on necessary redesign work, which sabotages iterative’s main advantage over waterfall processes.

Redesign Work Method Using Kaizen Engineering

The technique of work procedures is studying techniques and principles to get the best work system design. One of the approaches in Redesign Work is Kaizen Engineering. The main advantage of Kaizen Engineering is increasing productivity, efficiency, and performance through the process of eliminating waste through small and continuous process improvements. One of the redesigns works processes that can be done is in the field of drinking water packaging. This research will be conducted at XYZ Ltd. as a mineral bottled water (in Indonesia known as Bottled Drinking Water / AMDK) company which was established in 1987. According to the observation, it is found that the number of demands is greater than the number of productions. The study's objective is to find out the proposed work method of XYZ Ltd. using kaizen engineering. The purpose is to make the packaging processing time shorter so that the number of produced products increased. Improvement was made by eliminating effective movements, bringing the layer table position closer, and creating a raft table design proposal to make the operators easier in doing their job. The time standard measurement result using the current work method is 70.98 seconds per person per cardboard. The measurement of the proposed work method improvement in the packaging processing decreased standard time to 55.54 seconds. It is 15.44 seconds or 21.75% lesser. This study showed that the proposed standard time could increase the output, reaching18 boxes per person per hour.

Re-Designed Work Station for Breeding Hens Based On Work Posture and Anthropometrics in Widodomartani

Animal husbandry is one of the agricultural sub-sectors that has an important role in contributing quite significantly to the country’s economy and breeding hens are one of those. In setting up breeding hens that sufficiently adequate it does not require substantial capital. However, many breeding hens in designing the work station are less ergonomic, giving rise to the level risk of musculoskeletal disorder. The aim of this study is to assess the work posture of the operators and from the result of this study, it can be proposed improvement of the work station to improve work posture and to reduce the level of Musculoskeletal Disorder. The method that used in this research is Quick Entire Check, Nordic Body Map, and Anthropometrics. The result showed that the exposure level operator 1 got value 41.47%, the action that needs to be done is need more research to make it safe. While operator 2 got value 55.68%, the action that needs to be done is doing another research and change the activities. Also, it can be seen if the pain felt by the two operators is in the neck, buttock, shoulder, arm, calf, and knee. From the research results, the recommendation given is to redesign work stations that pay attention to work posture by implementing anthropometry and adding several innovations.

Robots and COVID-19: Re-imagining Human–Robot Collaborative Work in Terms of Reducing Risks to Essential Workers

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to the widespread adoption of physical distancing to prevent the disease’s spread. Physical distancing, however, is not always feasible for essential workers. Robots are one proposed solution to help ensure that essential work is performed while reducing the risk of COVID-19 exposure among essential workers and their families. The COVID-19 pandemic has, however, highlighted the ability and inability of robots to directly replace human labor. At present, much of the discussion has focused on the need for technical developments in robotics. This perspective is short-sighted because it and fails to leverage the collaborative nature of work between humans and robots. In response, this article acts as a call to shift the conversation away from technical developments and toward a focus on human and robot work redesign.

How well has part-time work on return from maternity leave been accepted in the workplace? Learnings from allied health professional managers in Queensland Health.

Objective The aim of this study was to explore allied health professional (AHP) managers' implementation of the right to request part-time hours on return from maternity leave in Queensland Health (QH) hospitals. Methods Qualitative data were collected via interviews with AHP managers from a cross-section of professions with variations in workforce size and gender composition. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed and analysed thematically. Results Twenty-one of a potential 40 AHP managers agreed to participate in the study (response rate 53%). The main finding was that the implementation of part-time work arrangements was being driven by regulation and work was being managed without complementary changes to established workplace practices or adequate organisational support. Conclusion The use of regulatory instruments to implement part-time work in organisations without complementary work redesign, change management and organisational support suggests that there are significant barriers to this type of flexible working arrangement (FWA) becoming accepted workplace practice for AHPs in QH. A whole-of-organisation approach is needed to make FWA a reality. What is known about the topic? Research has underlined the importance of implementation and management rather than simply the adoption of FWA policies. However, there have been few reports about AHP management of part-time hours on return from maternity leave. What does this paper add? This paper provides information specifically about the management response to part-time work entitlements for AHP in QH. It indicates that managers are implementing part-time work because it is a regulatory requirement, but often without a substantive commitment to FWA complementary redesign of services or sufficient organisational support. What are the implications for practitioners? Complementary work redesign measures and resources are needed to make workplaces genuinely flexible rather than just superficially consistent with regulatory requirements.

Perceptions of hospital pharmacists and pharmacy technicians towards expanding roles for hospital pharmacy technicians: a cross‐sectional survey

AbstractBackgroundThe “Pharmacy Technician and Assistant Role Redesign within Australian Hospitals Project” outcomes were released in November 2016.AimTo assess pharmacy staff attitudes towards expanded hospital pharmacy technician (HPT) roles in a Victorian metropolitan teaching hospital.MethodAn electronic questionnaire circulated to all pharmacists, interns and HPTs remained open for 4 weeks during September 2018. Questions focused on three key domains: HPT involvement in final accuracy checking of inpatient supplies and manufactured items, drugs of addiction (DA) management and clinical support roles. The hospital's Office for Research deemed the study a quality improvement activity.ResultsThe questionnaire was undertaken by 61 of 122 (50%) pharmacy staff. Fewer than 10% of respondents believed that HPTs are adequately used in current practice. Final accuracy checking technicians for inpatient medication supplies was supported by 82% of respondents. HPTs signing entries into dispensary DA registers for discharge and outpatient prescriptions was supported by 81% of respondents. Best possible medication history taking conducted by an HPT was supported by 52% of respondents, but support differed between pharmacists and HPTs, with 38 and 92% supportive, respectively (p &lt; 0.01). Forty percent of respondents supported HPT involvement in patient medication counselling. Key themes identified from qualitative data included: the need for clarification of legal and indemnity issues, training and credentialing and professional attributes for expanded HPT roles.ConclusionThese findings are informing HPT role expansion within the pharmacy department and have identified potential barriers to change. Such findings may be useful to pharmacy departments undertaking similar role redesign work.

A Historical View of Studies of Women\u2019s Work

This paper places observational studies of women’s work in historical perspective. We present some of the very early studies (carried out in the period from 1900 to 1930), as well as several examples of fieldwork-based studies of women’s work, undertaken from different perspectives and in varied locations between the 1960s and the mid 1990s. We outline and discuss several areas of thought which have influenced studies of women’s work - the automation debate; the focus on the skills women need in their work; labour market segregation; women’s health; and technology and the redesign of work – and the research methods they used. Our main motivation in this paper is threefold: to demonstrate how fieldwork based studies which have focussed on women’s work have attempted to locate women’s work in a larger context that addresses its visibility and value; to provide a thematic historiography of studies of women’s work, thereby also demonstrating the value of an historical perspective, and a means through which to link it to contemporary themes; and to increase awareness of varied methodological perspectives on how to study work.

Exploring the Use of ICT in Job Crafting

While job crafting has been widely acknowledged as an effective form of individual work redesign, less attention has been devoted to the concrete behaviors by which individuals craft different aspects of their job. Given the ubiquitous presence of technologies in modern workplaces, the aim of the current research was to explore the role of information and communication technologies (ICT) in individuals’ job crafting behaviors. In Study 1, we interviewed 17 research associates with regards to their strategic use of ICT in influencing demands and resources at work. Applying a blend of qualitative content analysis and concept mapping, this approach yielded ten distinct job crafting strategies drawing on ICT. In Study 2, we set out to validate the 10-factor structure of these strategies in a broader sample of 215 employees and link these to work engagement, job satisfaction, and well-being. The results of Study 2 corroborated the existence of seven of the ICT-related job crafting strategies identified in Study 1, while also showing their relevance by linking these strategies to work engagement and job satisfaction. Taking everything together, this paper provides insights into the process by which individuals can effectively manage their individual work design using ICT. By virtue of integrating research on job crafting and ICT use, we thus contribute towards a more process-oriented perspective on job crafting while further shedding light on the positive effects of ICT on individual outcomes.

Multilevel Perspectives on the Antecedents of Work Design

Despite the established relationships between good work design and outcomes, poor work designs continue to persist. Little research has yet investigated the causes of this phenomenon. In this symposium we investigate how multilevel distal antecedents of work design, such as organizational change, influence employee job crafting and managers’ job design behaviours, and also directly affect work design. The five included papers highlight novel antecedents of work design at different levels which are currently under-researched but which could have important implications for research and practice. We hope to stimulate conversation on the topic which helps to take this field forward in a timely manner. When do Job Crafting Interventions Work? Workload, Intervention Intensity, and Participation Presenter: Caroline Knight; Curtin U., Perth Presenter: Maria Tims; Vrije U. Amsterdam Presenter: Jason Gawke; Erasmus U. Rotterdam I Get by with Help from My Friends: Perspective-Taking, Social Support, and Employee Engagement Presenter: Alex Scrimpshire; Xavier U. Presenter: Cynthia S. Wang; Northwestern Kellogg School of Management Presenter: Bryan D. Edwards; Oklahoma State U. Presenter: Gillian Ku; London Business School Do Managers Design Motivational Work? It Depends on their and the Organisation’s Values Presenter: Anja Van Den Broeck; KU Leuven Presenter: Pallavi Sallah; KU Leuven Presenter: Karin Proost; KU Leuven Presenter: Filip Germeys; KU Leuven The Impact of Organizational Work Redesign on Employee Perceptions of Work: A 5-Wave Panel Study Presenter: Maria Tims; Vrije U. Amsterdam Presenter: Christine Yin Man Fong; Vrije U. Amsterdam Simpler, Nicer, Harder: How Robots are Changing Work Design Presenter: Hannah Ariane Berkers; Eindhoven U. of Technology Presenter: Sonja Rispens; Eindhoven U. of Technology Presenter: Pascale Le Blanc; Eindhoven U. of Technology

Workflow disruptions and provider situation awareness in acute care: An observational study with emergency department physicians and nurses

BackgroundThe fast-paced and rapidly changing environment of an Emergency Department (ED) requires providers to have a high level of situation awareness (SA). However, acute clinical care also encompasses a multitude of interruption-laden work processes that might degrade SA. It is therefore important to understand how frequent interruptions affect ED provider cognition in general and SA in particular. ObjectiveWe aimed to examine how sources and contents of provider workflow interruptions influence situation awareness of ED physicians and nurses. MethodsThis prospective, multi-method study combined standardized observations, self-reports of ED providers, and ED administrative data of staffing and patient load. Expert observers identified ED providers’ workflow interruptions during 90min observation sessions. Afterwards, each provider reported perceived disruptiveness and situation awareness. Controlling for patient load, patient acuity and staffing, we conducted regression analyses to explore prospective associations between interruptions and provider outcomes. ResultsDuring 74 observation sessions of overall 110h and 40min, we observed 1205 workflow interruptions (mean rate: 10.9 interruptions/hour). Provider situation awareness was fairly high (M = 7.10; scale 0–10) with no difference between ED physicians and nurses. After controlling for ED workload data, we observed that high rates of interruptions were associated with lower levels of situation awareness (β = −0.27). Further analyses revealed that particularly interruptions by telephone/beeper, technical malfunctions as well as interruptive communication related to completed cases were correlated to low SA. DiscussionThis study in a naturalistic ED setting shows that ED physicians and nurses continuously cope with disruptions and interruptions. Our findings reveal that highly interruptive workflow environments impede providers' situation awareness. Moreover, it sheds light on specific sources and contents of interruptions that influence providers’ SA in acute care. ConclusionFrequent workflow interruptions can degrade ED providers’ situation awareness. A deeper understanding of how avoidable and unavoidable interruptions affect provider cognitions with particular focus on social and technology-related disruptions is required. Further emphasis should be placed on the effective application of work re-design in this context to foster safe and efficient patient care.

Responding to imposed job redesign: The evolving dynamics of work and identity in restructuring professional identity

How do professionals respond when they are required to conduct work that does not match with their identity? We investigated this situation in an English public services organization where a major work redesign initiative required professionals to engage in new tasks that they did not want to do. Based on our findings, we develop a process model of professional identity restructuring that includes the following four stages: (1) resisting identity change and mourning the loss of previous work, (2) conserving professional identity and avoiding the new work, (3) parking professional identity and learning the new work, and (4) retrieving and modifying professional identity and affirming the new work. Our model explicates the dynamics between professional work and professional identity, showing how requirements for new professional work can lead to a new professional identity. We also contribute to the literature by showing how parking one’s professional identity facilitates the creation of liminal space that allows professional identity restructuring.

Analysis of the Job Characteristics Model

The Job-Characteristics Model is a concept constructed on the knowledge that a task is itself a key to the motivation of an employee (J. RICHARD HACKMAN, 1976). Precisely saying a repetitious job is very harmful to an employee’s motivation whereas a challenging and interesting job which keeps the employee engaged has a positive effect on the employee’s motivation (LĂZĂROIU, 2015). This theory mentions five job characteristics that are forecast to benefit the psychological state and work-related outcomes. This study also mentions some other factors that may function as mediators to show the relation between job characteristics and work-related outcomes (Syukrina Alini Mat Ali, 2014). The idea of work redesign arose to enrich the jobs in a way such that it would boost motivation and avoid monotonous tasks in a job. Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model states that there are five core job characteristics namely skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback (J. RICHARD HACKMAN, 1976). These job characteristics impact the psychological states of an employee that are experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes and knowledge of outcomes (J. RICHARD HACKMAN, 1976). These in-turn affects the work outcomes that are job satisfaction, performance and work motivation (J. RICHARD HACKMAN, 1976). In addition, it is possible to combine the five core job characteristics to calculate a motivating potential score for a job that can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect the behavior and attitude of an employee (Syukrina Alini Mat Ali, 2014). Work redesign is becoming increasingly popular as a strategy to simultaneously improve the productivity and quality of employee work experience in contemporary organizations (J. RICHARD HACKMAN, 1976). In this article ahead, the job characteristics, psychological states and work outcomes are explained in detail.

An analysis of the design factors of work procedures: implications for local government administration in South Africa

Work design and, in particular, work procedures have been a focus of much research in organisational development studies. However, their relevance and practice are rarely researched in public administration. This article presents an analysis of important design factors to be considered in the development of work procedures. The relevance of this study in the context of a developmental local government in South Africa is critical at a time when many municipalities are grappling with institutionalising service delivery administrative processes for the effective delivery of basic services. A quantitative research approach using a cross-sectional survey design involved 250 employees from three municipalities in South Africa. Structural equation modelling was used to determine the impact of critical factors on the design of work procedures for local municipalities. The study finds that out of the eight critical factors tested, the participation of local government employees in the development of work procedures and an effective municipal communication apparatus are significantly associated with the design of work procedures. We conclude that the design of work procedures should entail employee participation engendered through communication that freely and openly allows all stakeholders to share a common vision for service delivery. The findings further provide a theoretically underpinned framework as regards setting policy for achieving effective work procedures in similar local government contexts across the developing world. Points for practitioners While leadership and accountability, continuous improvement, shared vision, effective communication, and organisational policy are important factors to consider, employee participation is the most critical factor that affects the design and utilisation of work procedures in local municipalities. Policymakers/practitioners must seek empirical evidence as a basis for determining design considerations for effective work procedure design and redesign. This article provides a theoretically underpinned framework as regards setting policy for achieving effective work procedures in local municipalities.

Work and sleep quality in railway employees: an actigraphy study

This actigraphy study tests whether daily work stressors (time pressure, social stressors), work resources (control, social support) and mental detachment from work predict sleep quality, when controlling for demands and control after work. Fifty-two railway employees participated during five consecutive workdays by completing diary questionnaires and wearing an actigraphy device. The results confirmed that social stressors from supervisors predicted more frequent sleep fragmentation and lower sleep efficiency the following night. Higher levels of daily time control at work predicted shorter sleep-onset latency and better self-reported sleep quality. Leisure time control as a covariate turned out to be a private resource, followed by fewer awakenings the following night. Detachment after work related negatively to social stressors and time pressure at work but was unrelated to indicators of sleep quality; detachment after work neither mediated nor moderated the relationship between social stressors from supervisors and sleep quality. Work redesign to increase time control and reduce social stressors is recommended to preserve daily recovery in railway employees. Practitioner summary: Sleep is important to renew health- and safety-related resources in railway employees. This diary and actigraphy study shows that higher daily work stressors were antecedents of lower sleep quality the following night, while more time control was followed by better sleep quality. Work redesign could promote health and safety by improving sleep quality.

How work redesign interventions affect performance: An evidence-based model from a systematic review

It is not yet clear whether work redesigns actually affect individual-, team- or organizational-level performance. In a synthesis of this literature, we conclude there is good overall evidence, with the most promising evidence at the individual level. Specifically, our systematic review assessed whether top-down work redesign interventions affect performance and, if so, why (mechanisms) and when (boundary conditions). We identified 55 heterogeneous work redesign intervention studies, of which 39 reported a positive effect on performance, two reported a negative effect, and 14 reported mixed effects. Of five types of work redesign, the evidence that work characteristics can explain the effect of redesign interventions on performance was most promising for relational interventions, and participative and non-participative job enrichment and enlargement. Autonomous work group and system-wide interventions showed initial evidence. As to ‘why’ work redesigns enhance performance, we identified change in work motivation, quick response and learning as three core mechanisms. As to ‘when’, we showed that intervention implementation, intervention context (including alignment of organizational systems, processes and the work redesign) and person factors are key boundary conditions. We synthesize our findings into an integrative multilevel model that can be used to design, implement and evaluate work redesigns aimed at improving performance.

A Typological Analysis of US Transportation and Logistics Jobs: Automation and Prospects

AbstractBased on the O*NET job database, this research performs a typological analysis of US transportation and logistics jobs using two variables—the originality requirement of workers and the decision‐making freedom by work design. Based on cluster analysis, we find that Express Lane jobs command the highest average pay due to the greatest worker originality required, have the most decision‐making freedom allowed and are least vulnerable to automation. In contrast, Gridlock jobs are paid least on average due to the lowest worker originality, have the least decision‐making freedom, and are most vulnerable to automation. In the middle range fall Slow Lane and Bumpy Road jobs, due to less decision‐making freedom and lower worker originality required, respectively. Policy and managerial implications concerning training and work redesign are discussed in the context of technological advancements and automation.