Hofstede's Work Research Articles

Drivers of change: a contemporary model

PurposeThis paper introduces a contemporary model developed by a Sydney‐based consulting firm, ChangeTracking Research. The model was developed through an initial survey of 146 companies based in 27 countries.Design/methodology/approachThe authors present a change development model which uses Hofstede's work as a foundation for understanding cross‐cultural differences in organizations from across the world and how that affects change management in these cultures. The model is informed by initial surveys of employees from 27 nationalities in 146 companies working in a variety of industries.FindingsThe paper presents a model that identifies six key drivers arising from different cultural dimensions that determine success in change management projects.Practical implicationsThe model developed in this paper introduces new knowledge of the cross‐cultural dynamics in change management projects which would prove useful to change managers throughout the world.Originality/valueThe paper presents a unique model that presents six key drivers that determine the success of change management. A subset of clusters under each driver presents an in‐depth understanding of the critical issues to be recognized and managed in differing cultural contexts.

The evolution of Hofstede's doctrine

PurposeThe purpose of the paper is to provide a mature reflection upon the work of Hofstede by tracking various subtleties in the evolution of his thought and dispelling prevalent misconceptions.Design/methodology/approachThe goal of the paper is achieved by analyzing Hofstede's output from 1970 to the present day in parallel with contemporary research and criticism.FindingsThe paper arrives at the conclusion that the recent expansion and update of Hofstede's doctrine is indebted to the original groundbreaking work of the 1970s yet a key strength of Hofstede's work has been its ability to adapt and remain progressive.Originality/valueThe paper offers insights into the evolution of Hofstede's doctrines.

Cultural behavior and attitude differences found in excerpts of Micronesian folklore: Their relevance for global organizations

AbstractThis article examines cultural values and attitudes in terms of how these are reflected in samples of folklore from Kosrae Island, Micronesia. Based on the work of Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) and Trompenaars and Hampden‐Turner (1998), this investigator believes that there is evidence that the analysis of the themes gleaned from the folklore of Kosrae and identified and matched with the cultural values discussed by these authors can be replicated by other researchers working in Micronesia and other parts of the world. To support this in part, excerpts from folklore from Kabon Atoll, a coral atoll found in the Ratak Chain, Marshall Islands, are included. In addition, evidence found in the folklore from both islands may account for cultural behavior and attitude differences that are relevant for global organizations doing business with these cultures.

Information technology security management concerns in global financial services institutions

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to add a layer of understanding to a previous survey of information technology (IT) security concerns and issues in global financial services institutions (GFSI).Design/methodology/approachThis paper uses data obtained from a secondary source. The dimensions of national culture used in this paper come from Hofstede's work. Two analyses are performed on the data. First, a non‐parametric test is conducted to determine whether there are significant differences on the 13 IT security concerns when the dimensions of national culture are used to group responses. Second, a correlation analysis is carried out between the study's variables.FindingsFirst, the results indicate that the dimensions of national culture are not statistically important in differentiating responses and perceptions of IT security concerns across GFSI. Second, some of the dimensions of national culture are found to have significant correlations with a few of the IT security concerns investigated.Research limitations/implicationsThe use of a secondary data source introduces some limitations. The views captured in the survey are those of management team, it is likely that end‐users' perceptions may vary considerably. Nonetheless, the main finding of the paper for corporate managers in the financial services industry is that IT security concerns appear to be uniform across cultures. Further, the data show that the dimension of uncertainty avoidance deserves further attention with regard to the assessment of security concerns in GFSI. This information may be useful for decision making and planning purposes in the financial services industry.Originality/valueThis paper is believed to be among the first to examine the impacts of national culture on IT security concerns in GFSI. The paper's conclusions may offer useful insights to corporate managers in the industry.

The effectiveness of self‐management training in organisations from two culturally different countries

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of short training in self‐management skills on employees' efficacious beliefs and skills across cultures.Design/methodology/approachA longitudinal pre‐post field investigation repeated measures analysis is used to compare the effectiveness of the self‐management training between employees from Australia (individualistic country) and Kenya (collectivistic country).FindingsThe results suggest that there is a significant improvement in the learning of skills and efficacious beliefs post‐training (24 weeks). However, there are no significant differences in improvement between the two cultures and the training is similarly effective in both cultures.Research limitations/implicationsTraining focus is based on previous research that is primarily individual focused and further studies need to explore the training ethos. The assessments are developed for the study and need further examination to test their reliability and validity in other contexts. The individualistic and collectivistic criteria are drawn from Hofstede's work and may need further investigation as Hofstede's sample size of the Kenyan population is small. Finally, the results are unique to retail banking.Originality/valueThe effectiveness of this low‐cost training for enhancing employee efficacy has positive organisational outcomes, especially for those that have a multicultural workforce. It may be particularly useful for organisations in developing countries where cost is of concern.

National culture and the secrecy of innovations

The main objective of this paper is to provide greater understanding of the nature of secrecy in firms. It presents an effort to develop some links between management of the secrecy and its relationship with culture. Using measures from Hofstede's (2001) work, we have linked some dimensions of national culture with CIS 3 EU survey database. The results show that some attributes of the culture in organisations as masculinity and uncertainty avoidance have impact on the tendency of the firms for not to patent and maintain secrecy of their innovations.

Different Minds and Common Problems: Geert Hofstede's Research on National Cultures1

This article discusses Geert Hofstede's work on national cultural differences. It explains how Hofstede's model of the dimensions of national culture might be of use to performance improvement professionals as they try to solve familiar, and perhaps not so familiar, problems in international settings. Hofstede's work, first published in 1980, argues that many management theories, such as those of Herzberr, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959), Maslow (1970), and McGregor (1960), are not valid worldwide be cause the authors are subject to cultural bias that is manifested in their own cultural makeup. Hofstede's research has shown that national cultures tend vary on four dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, power distance, and individualism. Understanding national cultural differences is important to organizations to expand beyond their own national boundaries and to attempt to win the loyalty and business of customers around the globe.

Reconceptualizing international strategy and organization

Relatively little gets written about international strategy.1 According to one survey, 6 percent of the articles published in the top 20 academic management journals in 1996–2000 had specifically international content and, of that subset, 6 percent focused on the strategies and policies of multinationals (MNCs). The author of the survey concluded that: ‘Other than strategic alliances and entry mode strategies there is very little research on MNC strategies’ (Werner, 2002). An attempt to update the study for the period 2002–6 leads to broadly similar conclusions: just 5 percent of the articles published in the top 20 journals had specifically international content. MNCs’ strategies and policies accounted for a little more of that subset than before (12 percent), but continued to trail research on international joint ventures and alliances (15 percent) and on internationalization (14 percent) (or more specifically, measurements, antecedents and consequences thereof) and was closely followed by research on timing, motivation, location and consequences of foreign direct investment, and on knowledge transfer, with 11 percent apiece (Pisani, 2007). Such classifications, while subjective, do suggest a dearth of research on issues related to international strategy. To some extent, this dearth may reflect the lack of data that would facilitate large-sample analysis of strategic hypotheses: the last major data collection effort, Raymond Vernon’s Multinational Enterprise Project at Harvard Business School, was concluded 30 years ago.2 Remedying this constraint is complicated by the differences that arise at national borders, and that impede not only crossborder economic activity but also the assembly of data to better understand cross-border issues, as discussed further in the concluding section of this essay. International strategy has also experienced some indirect pressure from the surge of research on culture, starting in the 1980s and driven by the work of Hofstede (Ferreira et al., 2002). However, perhaps the most direct efforts at displacement have been those made by scholars broadly interested in international organization and management. Consider the most prominent book in this vein, Bartlett and Ghoshal’s Managing across Borders (1989), based on a study of nine MNCs in three industries/sectors: STRATEGIC ORGANIZATION Vol 6(2): 195–206 DOI: 10.1177/1476127008090010 Copyright ©2008 Sage Publications (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore) http://so.sagepub.com

Overt employment discrimination in MNC affiliates: home-country cultural and institutional effects

Using job announcements posted by MNC subsidiaries in Taiwan and Thailand, we investigated the effects of MNC home-country cultural and institutional forces on the use of employment gender and age discriminatory criteria in host countries where anti-discrimination legislation was absent. We examined the cultural effects with composite measures taken from the work of Hofstede and Schwartz. The effects of the existence of anti-age and anti-gender discrimination employment legislation in an MNC home country were also assessed to control for institutional factors. Logit analysis shows that MNC home-country culture and institutional environment can have a strong impact on the use of discriminatory criteria by MNCs in host countries, at least those lacking protective legislation. Specifically, MNCs based in countries that have existing and effective age and gender discrimination laws, and have more individualist and less masculine cultures, are less likely to engage in at least overt gender-based and age-based discrimination.

Corporate Culture and Values: Genesis andSources of L'Oréal's Entrepreneurial Orientation

In this paper we are developing ideas based on Geert Hofstede's work. From this author one can notice a strong relationship between the personal values of company founders and the organisation values. The first days in the life of a young firm and its first actors have an impact of the highest intensity on the organisational value system. Following Geert Hofstede's statement, we really think that the values of firm founders and/or of young company first actors play a key role on the enterprise culture. More specifically, looking at individual values in relation to innovation, initiative and risk-taking, creation of new economic and social wealth and entrepreneurship, we hypothesize that these personal values can quickly move into the collective value system and influence the entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviours of the company. The qualitative indicator we are using in this research to assess such behaviours is entrepreneurial orientation. We keep four out of five dimensions of the Lumpkin and Dess's indicator, namely innovativeness, risk-taking, autonomy and proactiveness. We qualitatively test the relationship between founder (entrepreneur) values and enterprise culture and we apply our entrepreneurial orientation model to L'Oréal, one of the largest French companies. In this case we are not interested in the founder, Eugène Schueller, but in a key first actor, François Dalle, who has identified, evaluated and exploited growth opportunities in the cosmetic market for more than forty years. Our results, in this exploratory phase, are interesting. They underline the role of top manager values, the influence of the enterprise culture and its capacity to counterbalance the eventual negative effects of the national culture on entrepreneurial spirit, and entrepreneurial behaviours in France. Obviously, there is a call for other research to validate the hypothesis and bring knowledge to improve our understanding of key cultural variables and mechanisms which help or inhibit the entrepreneurial orientation and the entrepreneurial dynamics of firms.

Cultural Change and Marketing

ABSTRACT The results of this study suggest that marketing strategies need to be adjusted to changing cultures. Culture affects marketing decisions regarding product, price, promotion and place (the 4 Ps). Many marketing studies have been reported based on Hofstede's seminal work on national culture (1980). Marketing managers need to be cautious about assuming the validity of the Anglo cluster equating the cultures of the United States (U.S.) and Canada. We should recognize that national cultures are changing in the U.S., Canada and Mexico, as well as most other countries in the world. Our findings for a very recent sample of people attending executive and MBA programs would seem to apply to the upwardly-mobile business class. Contrary to the ubiquitous Hofstede data found in textbooks, we found no significant differences in Power Distance between the U.S., Mexico and Canada. Our findings regarding differences in Uncertainty Avoidance show that Mexico did not have a significantly higher mean than the U.S., but that the U.S. had a higher mean than Canada. The U.S. and Canada did not differ significantly on Individualism/Collectivism. Our results suggest that caution should be taken in automatically assuming cultural parity between the U.S. and Canada and that established cultural positions between the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) member nations may be changing.

A dynamic model interpreting work-related values of multi-faceted cultures: the case of Iran

Among many published cross-cultural studies, Hofstede's work in creating a five-dimension value system and drawing a world cultural map is one of the most comprehensive and cited researches. The results emerging from Hofstede's study can be used properly only when one considers its strengths and limitations. Reviewing Hofstede's study, this paper describes the problems associated with using the study's results to understand Iranian work-related values. The problems are more or less common in interpreting multi-faceted cultures and Iran as a case is studied here. The main problems of Hofstede's research, which limits its applications, pertain to its one-shot-picture, the generalization of IBM's values, danger of falling victim to ecological fallacy, and being descriptive rather than predictive. In this paper the author presents a dynamic map and three-dimension model to overcome the problems associated with interpreting the work-related values of a country such as Iran with a multi-faceted culture. The model is based on the five dimensions (four introduced by Hofstede (1980a) and Michael Bond (Chinese Cultural Connection, 1987 added the fifth) pointed out by Hofstede (1991) and crosses the dimensions with different facets of a multi-faceted culture. This helps to deal with the problems of Hofstede's study noted above. The model assists to interpret Hofstede's findings for different organizations or individuals and, consequently, to avoid the ecological fallacy. It also provides a dynamic mechanism supporting following the changing trend of national cultures over time. Although the context of the current study is limited to one country, Iran, the approach employed in the study can be used for other multi-faceted cultures.

What Do Employers Want? Views of Chinese and Canadian Job Seekers

AbstractRapid globalization has led to many studies of cross‐cultural issues and their implications for management. As China's importance in the international economy rises, the level of international business cooperation continues to increase. This paper first identifies differences in the cultural orientations of Chinese and Canadians entering the job market and then examines how these orientations are related to their perceptions of the criteria employers use when hiring. The analyses show that the cultural differences are not consistent with Hofstede's previous work. Further, there are significant differences in the qualities that are considered important when seeking a job. The results of this study increase mutual understanding and improve business relationships between the two countries.(Edited by Zhinan Zhang)

Leading cultural research in the future: a matter of paradigms and taste

The styles and approaches used in cross-cultural organizational research are nearly as varied as the cultures under study. We see two variations of one dominant style in the work of Hofstede and the GLOBE research consortium. In this commentary, I shall place these approaches in context and discuss alternatives that seem to be highly promising but largely overlooked. Based on this analysis, I conclude that it may well be time that this form of large-scale, multi-country survey be set aside for the development of alternative mid-range theories having a more direct application and explanation for organizational phenomena in a cultural and national context.

Hofstede, Schwartz, or managerial perceptions? The effects of different cultural distance measures on establishment mode choices by multinational enterprises

In recent years, scholars have become increasingly critical of Kogut and Singh's [(1988). The effect of national culture on the choice of entry mode. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(3), 411–432] cultural distance index and of Hofstede's [(1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications] underlying national culture framework. We therefore examine and compare the effects of five cultural distance measures on the choice by multinational enterprises (MNEs) between expanding abroad through greenfield or acquisition. Two of these measures are based on Hofstede (1980), another two on Schwartz [(1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, methods, and applications (pp. 85–119). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications; (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48(1), 12–47], and one on managerial perceptions. Analyzing a sample of foreign expansions by Dutch MNEs and controlling for other factors, we find that high scores on all cultural distance measures significantly increase the likelihood that MNEs choose greenfields, and that the explanatory power of the Hofstede and Schwartz-based measures is comparable, while that of the perceptual one is somewhat lower. We conclude that it may thus be premature to dismiss Hofstede's work as outdated or as inaccurately reflecting national cultures, and to consider Schwartz's framework to be superior.

Diversity, Ethnicity and Consumption

This paper aims to examine diversity and identity issues from a marketing perspective. The traditional marketing practice of segmenting markets could be viewed as the antithesis of diversity as it relies on identifying homogenous characteristics of a population. It is uneconomical and generally less effective to market to a broad range of consumers than to do so for a specific group with homogenous characteristics. However, segmentation is not possible without diversify. Segmentation requires the presence of substantial differences in consumer characteristics and behaviour in a population to be truly effective. Marketing and its relationship to diversity, however, extends beyond segmentation and into issues of an individual's sense of identity and belonging. The literature suggests that an individual's identify is expressed through consumption and this can include ethnic identity. With an increasingly diverse, multicultural society in many countries, it is timely to look more closely at cultural identity and its relationship to consumption. Hofstede's work on cultural characteristics inherent in a particular country, continue to be widely used in international business. How evel; cultural identity and characteristics attributed to individuals in their country of birth may change when they immigrate to another country. Acculturation in a host country affects how immigrants see themselves and wish to be perceived. This can be problematic for marketers attempting to segment and reach consumers on the basis of their ethnicity. If consumption is an expression of identity as the literature suggests, then marketing has a role to play in either influencing or responding to issues of diversity and identity in the population at large. This paper examines the current literature on consumption, consumer behaviour and ethnic identify.

Comparative industrial relations theory: the role of national culture

This paper explores the use of national culture in comparative industrial relations theory to explain the cross-national pattern of industrial relations institutions. A critical review of the existing body of theory argues that it has not adequately explained cross-national differences in the main industrial relations variables. The review also establishes that, with few exceptions, national culture is currently given negligible weight as an explanatory variable. It is argued that a cultural theory of cross-national difference is required. Following a critical assessment of the work of Hofstede, a cultural model is developed based on his definition and specification of culture. Some hypotheses linking Hofstede's dimensions of culture with our industrial relations variables are derived. As an empirical test of the model, industrial relations variables are regressed on Hofstede's cultural indices. National culture is found to be significantly associated with all the major characteristics of industrial relations systems investigated. The paper concludes that national culture is the primary determinant of cross-national variations in industrial relations institutions and that culture is likely to be a force for ongoing diversity in labour market systems.

Productive Diversity: Capitalising on Human Resources: How can we Harness our Knowledge of Diversity?

The process of productive diversity may be harnessed by capitalising on human resources. This is based on research on the micro scale on consulting teams from Middlesex University Business School working on live client based problems. Members of these teams were asked to identify individual cultural differences, in order to create an awareness of the values, traditions and beliefs that influenced their own thinking and behaviours and to identify stereotypes that were associated with their cultures. Our aim was to facilitate an awareness of the complementarity of difference in order that these teams might understand better how they could add value to both their operations as a team and their client organisations. In adopting this position we are informed by the work of Hofstede, Schein. and Trompenaars. What our research points to is not that teams are driven by either shared values or a comlementarity of difference, but rather, that both of these factors are inextricably connected. Indeed, our research suggests that there is a two- stage process that begins with recognising the complememetarity of difference that team members bring from their individual cultural contexts, and that through a process of knowledge management that seeks to reveal this complementarity, shared values then emerge. It is we suggest this two-stage process that leads to productive diversity and contributes directly to an expanded knowledge economy.

Offshore teaching and learning: an exploratory Singaporean study

This study is the first of three which discuss and investigate the provision and progress of undergraduate business degree programs to an educational provider in Singapore. Building on the work of Hofstede and Gibb, it shows how both models may be integrated for a flexible and enterprising approach to teaching and learning in a cross‐cultural context. Drawing on the authors’ recent experiences at the Washington Business School in Singapore, the paper advocates that this approach will yield greater benefits than current methods. It concludes that an effective enterprising approach to teaching and learning is possible, provided a number of key cultural matters are addressed. Further study is recommended to substantiate the propositions of the present paper to evaluate the outcomes of the new approach in the Singaporean cultural/educational context. It is expected that these studies will benefit tertiary educators operating or contemplating entry into Asian markets.

Belling the Cat – Towards A Taxonomy Of Organisational Culture In Ghana: A Research Note

Extracted from text ... 1 BELLING THE CAT - TOWARDS A TAXONOMY OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE IN GHANA: A RESEARCH NOTE BILL B. PUPLAMPU, School of Administration, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG78, Legon GHANA psyconhr@ghana.com Introduction This paper presents on-going research into organisational culture in Ghana. The literature on Organisational Culture is vast and voluminous (Kotter & Heskett, 1992; Siegal, 1998; Brown, 1995). This literature is, however, largely dominated by Western conceptualisations and classifications. Hofstede's work on the impact of national culture on organisations (1980 onwards) has served to highlight the interaction between the culture of a country or region and that of ..