Dictionary Of Words Research Articles

Процессы аффиксации в ментальном лексиконе: морфологический прайминг при орфографических изменениях в родственных глаголах русского языка

Suffixed and prefixed words have common linguistic properties and are closely related to the base word in the mental lexicon. Whether different types of information are important for the storage of different types of derivatives or whether their mental organization is similar is one of the topical psycholinguistic questions. My experimental data point at different ways of storing related verbs in the mental lexicon, linked to the base word through two derivational processes. Between the stem and the suffixed relative, the relationship is closer and based on common lexical properties, while the relationship between the stem and the prefix is ??rather formal. I draw this conclusion on the basis of the robust morphological priming effect from the suffixed verb to its base even if the spelling integrity of the suffixed relative is ??violated. This also holds true only in the condition of an orthographically preserved root morpheme. On the contrary, the priming effect to the base verb disappears from a related verb with an orthographically violated prefix. Furthermore, both suffixation and prefixation do not act uniformly and a closer look suggests that lexical organization is modified through the aspectual information of family members. This information will need to be taken into account in future studies of verbal material of the Russian language.

Русская классика XIX века и проблема лингвистического комментария (на примере Героя нашего времени Лермонтова)

This article discusses the language of world-famous nineteenth-century Russian texts from the perspective of a linguist. The main source material is ‘Fatalist’, the final part of the novel A Hero of Our Time by Mikhail Lermontov. ‘Fatalist’ is analyzed in a broader context of data provided by the Russian National Corpus, which spans the whole period of the development of Russian literary language and is not limited to one writer. It is shown that the Russian language of the early nineteenth century, usually regarded as comprehensible and rather “modern”, has become so distant from contemporary Russian that in many cases linguistic commentaries are required. The article illustrates this issue with four fragments of ‘Fatalist’ that might not be lucid enough for speakers of twenty-first-century Russian and are therefore likely to be misinterpreted. It is not merely a matter of lost realities of the past, but of fundamental changes within the language – word formation, syntax, lexicon, and constructions. These linguistic shifts are gradually alienating nineteenth-century literature from new generations of readers.

LOGICAL-COGNITIVE CHARACTER OF THE TERMINOLOGICAL DEFINITION

In order to convey the meaning of linguistic units, scholars use terms such as interpretation, description, and definition of a word in dictionaries. In this sense, this article attempted to discuss the concept of definition in detail, analyzed the issues related to determining the meaning of some concepts used in conjunction with the definition, and considered the logical and cognitive nature of the definition. The article differentiated the description given to the term and its definition itself in scientific works and considered the scholars’ general opinions about this issue. In the scientific works dedicated to the study of the term “definition”, it was found that the definition is considered as the main tool of lexicographic semantization. To this extent, this article considered the main differences of the definition from other concepts, its peculiarities and similarities. Thus, a scheme of terminological semantization was given based on the research findings. The article summarized the requirements for the definition of the term and its main content in accordance with the doctrine of general terminology.

Parameters of Lexicographic Description of New Vocabulary of Modern German in Electronic Dictionary of Neologisms of Leibniz Institute for German Language

The problem of lexicographic fixation of neologisms at the present stage of development of German-language lexicography by private explanatory dictionaries of electronic format is considered. A fairly successful example of lexicographic practice was chosen as the object of the study — an electronic dictionary of neologisms of the modern German language on the lexicographic online portal of the Leibniz Institute for the German Language. The dictionary is a “living”, constantly updated edition, which is based on the criteria for the definition and classification of neologisms, developed by its compilers. The authors of the article performed an analysis of the parameters of the lexicographic description of neologisms in this dictionary. The question is raised about the mandatory or optional nature of the parameters used by the compilers of the dictionary when forming the microtext (dictionary entry). Standard and specific parameters of lexicographic description, which are profile for the dictionary of new words are distinguished: example-definition, first fixation, language reflection, encyclopedic information, representation in dictionaries, etc. The analysis of lexicographic practice sets the task of summarizing the practical experience of lexicographers in order to determine the optimal set of parameters for the codification of neology.

Is My Password Strong Enough?: A Study on User Perception in The Developing World

INTRODUCTION: The first line of defense in the cyber world is strong and difficult to predict passwords. However, users often choose highly predictable passwords based on personal information, dictionary words, birth date, etc. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective is to ascertain password choice

Phraseological translation of specialized speech: contrastive analysis of sports press in Russian and Spanish

This article discusses one of the most relevant topics from the point of view of translation: collocations in the sports press. The reason why this field was chosen is due to the great interest of linguists to include new words in dictionaries due to the influence of other areas of the language and the spread of sports in society. The result of the observed processes is that even native speakers of the Russian language find it difficult to read and understand sports news, and for foreigners interested in sports, these features of the sports press may present insurmountable difficulties, since the actual sports vocabulary is present in textbooks and dictionaries is limited. The analyzed corpus does not have the representative power inherent in large national and parallel corpora, however, this study has revealed several interesting phenomena and outlined ways to further study sports discourse: further study of collocations and productive models based on the material of large Russian and Spanish language corpora, Yandex search engines, blogs and other lexicographic online tools is of undoubted interest. In the process of assimilation of collocations, difficulties arise, since stable phrases are always difficult and impossible to predict. During the study, we saw that usually the components of combinations in one language do not coincide with other languages, since there is an influence on the language of the culture in which their own use of metaphors manifests itself. The compilation of multilingual educational dictionaries and the identification of productive collocation models can significantly expand the field of mastering the Russian language by foreigners and develop skills in predicting the meanings of unfamiliar words and collocations when getting acquainted with different types of discourse.

Discussion of Dhaliwal, Goodman, Hoffman, and Schwab (2019): Revisiting Tax-Related Reputational Costs

Discussion of Dhaliwal, Goodman, Hoffman, and Schwab (2019): Revisiting Tax-Related Reputational Costs

A Comparable Corpus-Based Study of Cross-Strait Varieties: The Case of 注意 Zhùyì and 專心 Zhuānxīn

Chinese Word Sketch (CWS) provides a tool to identify the semantic distinctions of the Chinese near synonyms in the natural language use situation. This study has the case of 注 意 Zhùyì and 專 心 Zhuānxīn, with Gigaword_CNA and Gigaword_XIN, two of the main sub-corpora in CWS, as the corpora for the research. Based on the comparison of senses and part of speech (POS) from Chinese Word Net and dictionaries, it is found that there are some disagreements of the POS between the ones prescribed by dictionary and in actual language use. What is more, some similarities and differences have been revealed based on the common and only patterns in the two sub-corpora. The study aims to reveal the variations of the two keywords in Taiwan Mandarin and Mainland Mandarin, which will contribute to the revision of the dictionary and facilitate a better understanding of cross-strait communication.

О ТОЧНОСТИ И ТРУДОЕМКОСТИ МНОГОЭТАПНОГО МЕТОДА КОРРЕКЦИИ ИСКАЖЕННЫХ ТЕКСТОВ В ЗАВИСИМОСТИ ОТ СТЕПЕНИ ИСКАЖЕНИЯ

One of the main factors that significantly complicate the understanding, translation andanalysis of texts obtained by automatic recognition of speech or images of texts is the presence ofdistortions in the form of erroneous symbols, words and phrases. Until recently, there were noeffective software tools for correcting texts with significant distortions, although this task is relevantboth for Russian and other common languages in the context of the active use of recognitionsystems in advanced augmented reality systems. The authors proposed a new multi-stage methodfor correcting distorted texts, which significantly increases the accuracy of the correction (interms of the number of correctly corrected words in the text) and is based on the sequential detectionof errors and their correction. In this paper, we evaluate the accuracy and computationalcomplexity of the proposed method for correcting distorted texts at various levels of distortion, anddetermine its place among other modern approaches to correction. The most typical errors ofrecognition systems are: – replacing a word with a similar sound or graphic spelling; – replacingseveral words with one; – replacing one word with several; – omission of words; – insertion ordeletion of short words (including prepositions and conjunctions). As a result of recognition, adistorted text is obtained, which consists mainly of dictionary words, even in places of distortion.With a large number of distortions, the texts become almost unreadable. Due to the fact that it isproblematic to select texts with a wide range of distortion levels in the required amount based onthe results of real machine recognition of speech and images of texts, software modeling of distortionswas used. A text distortion technique has been proposed and implemented that simulates theresults of recognition systems in a wide range of distortions; distorted texts have been prepared inthe required amount. Within the framework of the proposed multi-stage correction method, nondictionaryword forms and words are considered distorted if the probability of their occurrence inthe text in accordance with the chosen language model is less than a given threshold. For suchdistorted words, a list of possible variants of words is built, which includes only those word formsfrom the dictionary that are at a certain Levenshtein distance from the word under study. The correctedtext from the tables of word variants is obtained by searching for the most probable chainof word forms. The correction method consists of several stages, at each stage only those fragmentsof the text that remain distorted after the previous stage are corrected. According to theresults of the experiments on the correction of distorted texts, it was concluded that the proposedcorrection method showed good results with an average value of F-measure >50 % in the distortionrange from 0 to 75 %. Linguistic experts confirmed the fruitfulness of the proposed approachto correction and its preference over other modern approaches, fixing that with a level of distortionof up to 50 % of words, the corrected text is read with much less effort than a distorted one,and with a level of distortion of up to 70% of words, the corrected text also allows you to highlightuseful information about the content.

Literary Thoughts Showing the Kaliththokai

In the Internal text of Eighth volume book of sangam age literature. That is one book name is kaliththokai. It refers to poetic expressions in human life, five lands were accepting facts, Book says the arts, Grammar of Kalippa, it is one of the lyric Method. Literature is the expression of the biographical fantasies and ideologies of earlier human beings. There is a great deal of literature from the time the world appeared until today. Among them, Kalithokai is one of the Eighteen Greater Texts on Sangam literature. The song and the amount are its contents. Literacy Historical evidence of the kaliththokai. It says Ravana, God shiva about information and Literacy appears Dictionary word findings these are all show in the article.

Sentiment Analysis of COVID-19 Vaccines in Indonesia on Twitter Using Pre-Trained and Self-Training Word Embeddings

Sentiment analysis regarding the COVID-19 vaccine can be obtained from social media because users usually express their opinions through social media. One of the social media that is most often used by Indonesian people to express their opinion is Twitter. The method used in this research is Bidirectional LSTM which will be combined with word embedding. In this study, fastText and GloVe were tested as word embedding. We created 8 test scenarios to inspect performance of the word embeddings, using both pre-trained and self-trained word embedding vectors. Dataset gathered from Twitter was prepared as stemmed dataset and unstemmed dataset. The highest accuracy from GloVe scenario group was generated by model which used self-trained GloVe and trained on unstemmed dataset. The accuracy reached 92.5%. On the other hand, the highest accuracy from fastText scenario group generated by model which used self-trained fastText and trained on stemmed dataset. The accuracy reached 92.3%. In other scenarios that used pre-trained embedding vector, the accuracy was quite lower than scenarios that used self-trained embedding vector, because the pre-trained embedding data was trained using the Wikipedia corpus which contains standard and well-structured language while the dataset used in this study came from Twitter which contains non-standard sentences. Even though the dataset was processed using stemming and slang words dictionary, the pre-trained embedding still can not recognize several words from our dataset.

NATIONAL IDENTITY IN THE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION

Abstract 
 Background. The problem of national identity became relevant in connection with the development of an independent, sovereign Ukrainian state. The verbalized concept of «identity» is understood in broad historical and geopolitical contexts, projecting conclusions on public policy, socio-economic situation, national and cultural processes in society. The linguo-cognitive meaning of the term «national identity2, used in scientific and literary texts, needs to be studied.
 Purpose. To analyze the lexical semantics of the word identity in the modern Ukrainian literary language, to identify features of its interpretation in lexicographic sources, to trace the functioning of the phrase national identity in scientific texts and to outline the specifics of verbalization of «identity», «mentality» in the literary text.
 Methods. The study uses a method of comparative analysis of dictionary interpretations of register words identical, identity to substantiate the stylistic marker book (word) in modern Ukrainian literary language, as well as contextual – interpretive method for structuring the meaning of the term national identity, identifying features of verbalization in scientific and literary texts.
 Results. The verbalized term «identity» common in the modern humanities, in particular its semantic structure, needs to be clarified in the context of terminological meaning in relation to the representatives of the nation, national culture, i.e. national identity. Dictionaries of foreign words published at different times, explanatory dictionaries of the modern Ukrainian language do not fix the terminological meaning of the lexical item identity, semantically related to the concept of «nation». A characteristic feature of identity involves a logical process of conferring, comparing of objects, phenomena, concepts and identifying a common feature – the same, identical content, as evidenced by the phrases given in dictionaries. In contrast to the illustrations recorded in lexicographical sources, the phrase national identity actualized in modern literary language indicates a higher degree of abstraction: the feature represents the synthesis of common (indicating common features inherent in a certain nation) and different (seme of opposition to other nations with their identical features). Modern scientific texts in the humanities expand the combination of words identical, identity that form new phrases, acquiring a new terminological meaning in the system of concepts of history, philosophy, political science, sociology, culturology, linguistics.
 Synonymization of the words nation, ethnos in modern scientific and journalistic discourse has led to the parallel use of the phrases national identity and ethnic identity that identify the meaning of the lexical items nation, ethnos. Studiers often include the following concepts in the differential features of national identity: territory, religion, language. However, their assessment and identification role in relation to the integrity of the Ukrainian nation is defined differently. In discussions about the modern Ukrainian nation, the concepts of national (state), ethnic, historical, territorial, linguistic, cultural identity are distinguished. The concept of national identity is related to the linguo-pragmatic meaning of the term mentality, interpreted differently in scientific and literary contexts. The Ukrainian literary language has historically formed a word-forming series that combines words with the component SELF: self-consciousness, self-identification, identity, self-sufficiency, self-discovery, self-realization, self-affirmation, self-understanding, self-realization, self-correction, self-preservation, self-determination, self-humiliation, self-identity. The logical and psychological meaning of these nominations is correlated with the terms national identity, mentality.
 Discussion. The formation of an independent state has actualized the theme of national identity in the context of modern globalization. Linguistic analysis (lexical-semantic, linguo-cognitive) is supplemented by a contextual interpretation of the content of the terminological concept of «national identity». In scientific (historical, culturological, ethnological) texts the interpretation of varieties of identity with the focus on the concepts of «national» and «ethnic» identity is traced. The conclusion about the historical variability of the category of national identity is made. The authors of modern historical studies connect the phenomenon of national identity with the creation of the modern Ukrainian nation. 
 Comparison of scientific and artistic interpretation of the concept of national identity opens the prospect of studying the types of identities and linguo-cognitive structuring of each of them.

Chinese Event Extraction via Graph Attention Network

Event extraction plays an important role in natural language processing (NLP) applications, including question answering and information retrieval. Most of the previous state-of-the-art methods were lack of ability in capturing features in long range. Recent methods applied dependency tree via dependency-bridge and attention-based graph. However, most of the automatic processing tools used in those methods show poor performance on Chinese texts due to mismatching between word segmentation and labels, which results in error propagation. In this article, we propose a novel character-level C hinese e vent e xtraction framework via graph a ttention network (CAEE). We build our model upon the sequence labeling model, but enhance it with word information by incorporating the word lexicon into the character representations. We further exploit the inter-dependencies between event triggers and argument by building a word-character-based graph network via syntactic shortcut arcs with dependency-parsing. The architecture of the graph minimizes error propagation, which is the result of the error detection of the word boundaries in the processing of Chinese texts. To demonstrate the effectiveness of our work, we build a large-scale real-world corpus consisting of announcements of Chinese financial news without golden entities. Experiments on the corpus show that our approach achieves competitive results compared with previous work in the field of Chinese texts.

DIACHRONIC AND SYNCHRONIC ANALYSIS OF LEXICOGRAPHIC PROCESSES OF MINORITY LANGUAGES IN SCOTLAND: A CONTRASTIVE APPROACH

The paper offers a diachronic and synchronic analysis of the lexicographic processes of the minority languages in Scotland – Scottish Gaelic and Scots. For the first time, three periods (period of glossaries, historical period, modern “educational” period) of the Scottish Gaelic lexicography, and four periods (period of glossaries, pre-scientific period and dialectological period, historical period and scientific period) of еру Scots lexicography were outlined. The author discusses the diachronic and synchronic analysis of lexicographic sources, singles out common and divergent features of both lexicographic processes development, as well as the basic principles and approaches to compiling dictionaries. For the Scottish-Gaelic lexicography, it is absolutely untypical to compile dictionaries of dialectal words; to interpret the Gaelic language as a dialect of Irish, in contrast to the Scots, which for a long period of its development was perceived as a dialect of English, which prompted the lexicographers to compile dictionaries of dialectal vocabulary. A significant advantage of Scottish Gaelic dictionaries lies in the fact that English-Gaelic dictionaries appeared decades earlier in comparison with similar editions in the Scots language. Despite the fact that Scottish Gaelic is the official language of Scotland, Scottish Gaelic lexicography, compared to the Scots one, is significantly inferior both in the number of published dictionaries and in the quality of their content (macro- and microstructure). Both lexicographic processes are characterized by the lack of monolingual dictionaries. All publications are bilingual (translated into English, or from English, rarely in other languages).

Terms and phrases of the coronavirus era as a manifestation of linguoecological processes and their fixation in dictionaries

In the modern Russian language a huge amount of terms and terminological combinations appear, which quickly come into use, but do not remain in our language for a long time. The reason for this phenomenon is that to some extent they are alien, they are a kind of mix, a mixture of languages, they are poorly remembered and understandable, especially for older people. And the appearance of such "temporary" words in dictionaries is also an ambiguous question. On the one hand, they should have time to become common before they are forgotten. This is especially true of the words and expressions of the coronavirus era, since the pandemic is a temporary phenomenon. On the other hand, sometimes it is quite difficult to interpret the terms that have come from other languages and carry a definite linguistic and cultural trail. This paper just examines the issues of global changes in the Russian language culture through the prism of such a scientific approach as linguistic ecology. The authors talk about the changed language situation and try to understand whether it is possible to include newly appeared words of the coronavirus era in dictionaries, taking into account the experience of compiling and describing termins of linguistic ecology.

Разработка словарной статьи текстовой скрепы «прежде всего» для «Словаря служебных слов русского языка»

The article presents a dictionary entry of the text connector “first of all” (Rus. prezhde vsego) prepared in accordance with the model of lexicographic description for the Dictionary of Function Words of the Russian Language. The model was proposed by A.F. Priyatkina and E.A. Starodumova. Their works, as well as studies by the staff of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Far Eastern Federal University on the description of functional words and their presentation in the Dictionary of Function Words of the Russian Language, were the theoretical basis of this study. The following research methods are used in the article: observation; description, including generalization and systematization of linguistic phenomena; and contextual analysis. Examples from the Russian National Corpus and examples collected from modern texts of various functional styles and genres are used as illustrative material. When preparing a dictionary entry, the author has found that the fixed expression “first of all” can function not only at the level of the text, but also at the level of the utterance. The description of the non-textual possibilities of this fixed expression should be the subject of a special research. The text connector “first of all” has the meaning “prior the rest”, “before the rest”, “what comes first from a multitude”, which allows it to be used in three functional variants: (1) the selection of one or several elements that meet certain requirements that are the most important; (2) the designation of the most important condition for further development/impossibility of development of the situation, the possibility/impossibility of the development of events; and (3) the designation of the main argument refuting what is said in the left context of the connector. The location of the connector in the utterance and punctuation design can vary. The fixed phrase “first of all” has been described in several dictionaries, but its description there is not complete. In this regard, a lexicographic description of the phrase was carried out according to the following parameters: types of use, homonymy, morphological structure, meaning (interpretation), functional and semantic variants, scope, functioning as a connector, functioning within the framework of one utterance and types of constructions, intonation, punctuation, location, interaction with other connectors, interaction with other function words, functions other than text connection, units similar in function and semantics, stylistic label, dictionary data, illustrations. The study shows that the text connector “first of all” can be described in the Dictionary of Function Words of the Russian Language in terms of semantics, variation of functions, intonation and punctuation design, interaction with other function words, and others. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

Словарь иностранных слов как лексикографический жанр

The research was carried out on the material of dictionaries of foreign (foreign-language) words published in the period from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day (a total of nineteen editions). Among them are dictionaries of a general type, including concise ones, as well as dictionaries of neological vocabulary. The article sets the aim of analyzing the experience accumulated over two centuries and identifying the features in their development that are inherent in the dictionary of borrowings as a genre. The author’s field of vision is the issue of the opposition of linguistic and encyclopaedic features of the dictionary description in the dictionary of borrowed words. In the first part of the article, attention is paid to the dictionary’s microstructure, in the second to its macrostructure. Despite the initial conceptual setting on the communication of encyclopaedic information about the concept denoted by a foreign word, features of a linguistic dictionary have always been inherent in loanword dictionaries. This is shown by the material of dictionary entries from papers of different years, starting from 1901. At the level of the dictionary microstructure, such features are: etymology, data on the sphere of use of the word, data on semantic derivation and semantic transfers, paradigmatic connections of the word, its combinatorial properties, closest derivational connections, and variability of form. At the level of macrostructure, this may be a reflection of the typological properties of foreign-language vocabulary (borrowings, quasi-borrowings, hybrid words, secondary borrowings, semantic derivatives). The fact of genetic heterogeneity of borrowed vocabulary has hardly been reflected in dictionary practice until now. All the provisions are illustrated with examples from dictionary editions of different years. Proposed for discussion is the thesis about the unproductiveness of the fundamental opposition of encyclopaedic and linguistic knowledge within the framework of an explanatory dictionary (a dictionary of foreign words by its genre refers to aspect explanatory dictionaries). This thesis is supported by the evidence of well-known lexicographers and examples from the semantic, phraseological and illustrative zones of modern dictionaries. The specificity of the vocabulary of the loanword dictionary is a high percentage of terminological vocabulary, which is essentially a carrier of encyclopaedic information. Therefore, the synthesis of conceptual presentation and linguistic description (in various proportions) in the interpretation of a foreign term is inevitable. In conclusion, a brief typology of dictionaries of foreign words is given in various aspects: in terms of the period of the borrowing of the word, the source language of the borrowing, the addressee of the dictionary, the selection of dictionary units in relation to their belonging to the language standard. The question is raised about the appropriateness of including sub-standard vocabulary in the dictionary of foreign words of a general type. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

Automatic Eyewitness Identification During Disasters by Forming a Feature-Word Dictionary

Social media provide digitally interactional technologies to facilitate information sharing and exchanging individuals. Precisely, in case of disasters, a massive corpus is placed on platforms such as Twitter. Eyewitness accounts can benefit humanitarian organizations and agencies, but identifying the eyewitness Tweets related to the disaster from millions of Tweets is difficult. Different approaches have been developed to address this kind of problem. The recent state-of-the-art system was based on a manually created dictionary and this approach was further refined by introducing linguistic rules. However, these approaches suffer from limitations as they are dataset-dependent and not scalable. In this paper, we proposed a method to identify eyewitnesses from Twitter. To experiment, we utilized 13 features discovered by the pioneer of this domain and can classify the tweets to determine the eyewitness. Considering each feature, a dictionary of words was created with the Word Dictionary Maker algorithm, which is the crucial contribution of this research. This algorithm inputs some terms relevant to a specific feature for its initialization and then creates the words dictionary. Further, keyword matching for each feature in tweets is performed. If a feature exists in a tweet, it is termed as 1; otherwise, 0. Similarly, for 13 features, we created a file that reflects features in each tweet. To classify the tweets based on features, Naïve Bayes, Random Forest, and Neural Network were utilized. The approach was implemented on different disasters like earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and Forest fires. The results were compared with the state-of-the-art linguistic rule-based system with 0.81 F-measure values. At the same time, the proposed approach gained a 0.88 value of F-measure. The results were comparable as the proposed approach is not dataset-dependent. Therefore, it can be used for the identification of eyewitness accounts.

Kolory w reportażach Melchiora Wańkowicza. Reportaże z części Kraj lat dziecinnych w tomie Anoda i katoda

This study analyses the names of the colours used by the author of the reportages. The research method is based on finding answers to the following questions: What colours does the author write about? Which of them prevail? What do they refer to? What stylistic functions do the names of the colours fulfill? What names appear in various colour fields? What parts of speech are the colours represented by? The lexicon of colour words in the reportages under consideration is quite rich. Colours are related to people, animals, plants, landscapes and artefacts, and their function is to describe the appearance of the characters and their beauty, depict their clothing and their mental state, portray the reality of the Borderlands, mainly the landscape. Most often, they are used as epithets. The names in the colour field are not ifferentiated. Colours are most often represented by adjectives, less frequently by nouns, verbs, active and passive participles and adverbs. Occasionally, adjectival compounds are used.

A Set of “以” Indicating “Consider” —A Proposal of “以” Without “Too” in The Meaning (in Chinese)

In “三月无君则吊，不以急乎” (Did not this condoling, on being three months unemployed by a ruler, show a too great urgency to you?) from Mencius, “以” is commonly interpreted as 太 (too), bearing the same connotation with the “以” in “不以泰乎” (is it too excessive), also from Mencius, in an identical structure “adverb+ 以+adjective(+ 乎)”. The contexts of “不以泰乎”, “如其道，则舜受尧之天下，不以为泰。子以 为泰乎” (Shun accepted the Empire from Yao without considering it to be excessive, when it was in accordance with the Way. Or perhaps you consider even this to be excessive?) could provide an indication that “不 以泰乎” means “consider even this to be excessive” and further suggests that “不以急乎” means “consider it to be a great urgency”. There has been a myriad of sentences with the pattern of “以...为...” (consider... to be..) in the synchronic literature. The pattern “以为...” (consider as...) arose from the cases where the objective of “以” in “以...为...” referred to something or event that had appeared shortly prior to the context. The pattern “以...” (consider...) derived from the pattern of “以为”. It could be well demonstrated in the similar distribution in “以+adjective” and “以为 +adjective”. In some dictionaries of ancient Chinese function words, “以” and “已” as two synonym adverbs indicating “too” 太. And yet the instances gave in the dictionary could all be dissembled: in the first cases, “以(consider)” could be regarded as omitted expression of “以为”; in the second, it could be seen as a preposition in Chinese; or it should be seen as the equivalent of “已”, bearing the meaning of “already”.