L2 Word Research Articles

L2 Listening, Word Gain, and Learner Perspectives through Partial Dictation vs Reading-while-listening

Purpose: This study explored how the partial dictation of key words with L1 glossing (PDGL1) and reading-while-listening with the words boldfaced and underlined (RWLBU) while listening to audiovisual TED talks differently influence L2 listening, word gain, and learner perspectives.
 Methods: Fifty-six beginner learners took part in the study who were randomly assigned to the two groups. Data collection consisted of a pretest for selecting target words (TWs), a pretest for listening comprehension, two times of interventions, two immediate posttests for TWs, and a retrospective questionnaire.
 Results: The results showed that overall the PDGL1 group yielded significantly more immediate word recall and delayed retention in receptive and productive knowledge as well as listening comprehension, while RWLBU only contributed for immediate receptive word recall. Both groups showed positive perspectives on word learning and affective factors such as motivation and interest with no significant differences.
 Conclusion: The beneficial results from PDGL1 appeared to be attributed to language-focused partial dictation of key words with L1 glosses, which promotes learners to pay attention to form-meaning connections and cognitive processes. This could encourage beginner learners to be involved in better language performances, resulting in positive perspectives (Dankook University).

Contribution of statistical learning in learning to read across languages.

Statistical Learning (SL) refers to human's ability to detect regularities from environment Kirkham, N. Z. (2002) & Saffran, J. R. (1996). There has been a growing interest in understanding how sensitivity to statistical regularities influences learning to read. The current study systematically examined whether and how non-linguistic SL, Chinese SL, and English SL contribute to Chinese and English word reading among native Chinese-speaking 4th, 6th and 8th graders who learn English as a second language (L2). Children showed above-chance learning across all SL tasks and across all grades. In addition, developmental improvements were shown across at least two of the three grade ranges on all SL tasks. In terms of the contribution of SL to reading, non-linguistic auditory SL (ASL), English visual SL (VSL), and Chinese ASL accounted for a significant amount of variance in English L2 word reading. Non-linguistic ASL, Chinese VSL, English VSL, and English ASL accounted for a significant amount of variance in Chinese word reading. Our results provide clear and novel evidence for cross-linguistic contribution from Chinese SL to English reading, and from English SL to Chinese reading, highlighting a bi-directional relationship between SL in one language and reading in another language.

Disambiguating ambiguity: A comparative analysis of lexical decision-making in native and non-native English speakers

Making lexical decisions to disambiguate multiple-meaning words or senses provides clear evidence of word recognition, processing systems and representation in the mental lexicon. This comparative study explores non-native English speakers’ and native English speakers’ cognitive mechanisms employed in phonological and lexical ambiguity resolution embedded in auditory and visual utterances. English proficiency and vocabulary tests and two lexical decision tests were conducted with 35 EFL undergraduate students and four native English monolingual speakers. The effects of factors such as L2 proficiency and familiarity on ambiguity resolution in addition to the resolution techniques employed were also explored. Our findings suggest that the differences in disambiguating L2 words among native English speakers and non-native English speakers might indicate different comprehension, representation and processing patterns. The ambiguity type most likely has a major role in determining the diverse phenomenon of ambiguity resolution. More specifically, there was evidence of significant differences in homophone use, metaphorical polysemy and homonym ambiguity resolution between the two groups, excluding metonymous polysemy. Homophones and polysemy were the least problematic and challenging lexical ambiguity types unlike homonymy for the non-native group. Other results also revealed the positive effects of L2 proficiency and L2 word familiarity on ambiguity resolution. Thus, this study also has important implications considering the vital role of vocabulary in L2 competence and knowledge.

An Investigation of the Cross-Language Transfer of Reading Skills: Evidence from a Study in Nigerian Government Primary Schools

This paper investigates the linguistic interdependence of Grade 3 children studying in government primary schools in northern Nigeria who are learning to read in Hausa (L1) and English (L2) simultaneously. There are few studies in the African context that consider linguistic interdependence and the bidirectional influences of literacy skills in multilingual contexts. A total of 2328 Grade 3 children were tested on their Hausa and English letter sound knowledge (phonemes) and reading decoding skills (word) after participating in a two-year English structured reading intervention programme as part of their school day. In Grade 4, these children will become English immersion learners, with English becoming the medium of instruction. Carrying out bivariate correlations, we find a large and strongly positively significant correlation between L1 and L2 test scores. Concerning bidirectionality, a feedback path model illustrates that the L1 word score predicts the L2 word score and vice versa. Multi-level modelling is then used to consider the variation in test scores. Almost two thirds of the variation in the word score is attributable to the pupil level and one third to the school level. The Hausa word score is significantly predicted through Hausa sound and English word score. English word score is significantly predicted through Hausa word and English sound score. The findings have implications for language policy and classroom instruction, showing the importance of cross-language transfer between reading skills. The overall results support bidirectionality and linguistic interdependence.

Brain potentials reveal reduced sensitivity to negative content during second language production

Abstract Prior research suggests that bilinguals show reduced sensitivity to negative content when operating in the second language (L2). The available evidence, however, is limited to language comprehension. We tested the production of emotional words in Polish (L1)–English (L2) bilinguals in two EEG studies that manipulated emotional cueing. In Experiment 1 (neutral context), white or black circles indicated whether participants should read aloud (shadow) or translate a subsequently presented word. N400 amplitudes were selectively reduced for negative L2 words regardless of the task. In Experiment 2 (emotional context), we used black or white emojis, either sad or neutral, as cues. The previous interaction between word valence and language of operation vanished, but late positive potential amplitudes elicited by negative words were larger for translation from L2 to L1 (i.e., production in Polish) than L1 to L2. These results validate and extend to production previous findings of attenuated emotional response in L2 comprehension.

Bilingualism Influences How Articulation Enhances Verbal Encoding.

Learning information may benefit from movement: Items that are spoken aloud are more accurately remembered than items that are silently read (the production effect). Candidate mechanisms for this phenomenon suggest that speaking may enrich or improve the feature content of memory traces, yet research suggests that prior language skill also plays a role. Recent work showed a larger production effect in bilinguals for words in their second language (L2) compared to their first language (L1), potentially suggesting that bilinguals engage different or additional linguistic features when speaking L2 compared to L1 words. The current study examined whether the increased L2 production effect reduces for L2 and L1 pseudowords, which may similarly engage mainly phonological features. German (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals first read (out loud or silently) and subsequently recognized German or English words or pseudowords following German or English phonology. The production effect increased for L2 compared to L1 items and for words compared to pseudowords. Modest evidence suggested L2-L1 similarity in production effect scores for pseudowords, but different L2-L1 scores for words. Integrating feature models of memory with models of bilingual language production, we propose that speaking an L2 may engage more extensive and diverse linguistic features than an L1.

Developing Chinese lexical representations in Korean learner’s mind

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The present research explores whether Korean learners of Chinese at different proficiency levels employ distinct processing strategies when processing Chinese words with identical or different orthographic representations. Design/methodology/approach: In this research, two experimental studies were carried out to examine how Korean learners with different Chinese language proficiency process orthography, pronunciation, and meanings of Chinese written words. Data and analysis: Reaction times and error rates were analyzed for each study. Revised hierarchical model (RHM) and Ontogenesis Model (OM) are the major models used to analyze and discuss the results. Findings/conclusions: The findings of the phonological task reveal that intermediate-level participants utilize first language mediators to access second language (L2) words, whereas high-level participants can directly activate L2 phonological representations without first language interference. Conversely, in the semantic task, participants from both proficiency levels seem to adopt the word association model regardless of orthographic representations. Originality: The originality of the present study lies in its examination of the processing strategies employed by Korean learners of Chinese at different proficiency levels, specifically when processing Chinese words with identical or different orthographic representations. Significance/implications: These findings suggest that L2 proficiency does not guarantee the elimination of native language influence on L2 lexical processing and various factors can affect L2 lexical processing. To improve L2 lexical learning, it is recommended to start language learning early, increase vocabulary size, and enhance exposure to L2 words.

The effects of foreign language anxiety on English word reading among Chinese students at risk of English learning difficulties

AbstractForeign language anxiety has influenced reading achievement in English as a second language learning (ESL). However, less is known about how foreign language anxiety affects Chinese students learning English as L2 and the interplay between foreign language anxiety and cognitive-linguistic factors on L2 reading performance. This longitudinal study examined the impact of foreign language anxiety on English word reading and the mediating effect of cognitive-linguistic skills between foreign language anxiety and English word reading in a sample of 177 grades 2 to 3 ESL Chinese students at risk of English learning difficulties. Foreign language anxiety was assessed using parent-rated and child-rated questionnaires at T1. Students were assessed on English word reading at T1 and T2 and cognitive-linguistic skills: phonological awareness, expressive vocabulary knowledge, and working memory at T1. Path analysis showed that parent-rated foreign language anxiety significantly predicted T1 English word reading after controlling for working memory. However, child-rated foreign language anxiety did not significantly predict English word reading. Moreover, mediation analysis showed that parent-rated foreign language anxiety significantly predicted T2 English word reading through T1 English word reading and expressive vocabulary knowledge. Findings highlight the impact of foreign language anxiety on L2 word reading and suggest that mothers’ involvement in children’s ESL is essential.

How first- and second-language emotion words influence emotion perception in Swedish–English bilinguals

Abstract Emotional experiences are often dulled in one's second language. We tested whether emotion concepts are more strongly associated with first language (L1) than second language (L2) emotion words. Participants (140 L1-Swedish–L2-English bilinguals) saw a facial expression of an emotion (cue) followed by a target, which could either be another facial expression, an L1 emotion word, or an L2 emotion word. Participants indicated whether the cue and target represented the same or different emotions as fast as possible. Participants were faster and more accurate in both the L1 and L2 word conditions compared to the face condition. However, no significant differences emerged between the L1 and L2 word conditions, suggesting that emotion concepts are not more strongly associated with L1 than L2 emotion words. These results replicate prior research showing that L1 emotion words speed facial emotion perception and provide initial evidence that words (not only first language words) shape emotion perception.

General auditory processing, Mandarin L1 prosodic and phonological awareness, and English L2 word learning

Abstract This study examined general auditory processing, Mandarin L1 prosodic and phonological awareness, and the relations with English L2 word learning. Participants were 61 Mandarin-speaking children who learned English as an L2 in Taiwan. They received the following tasks: general auditory processing (i.e., amplitude envelope rise time, pitch contour and interval), Mandarin L1 prosodic and phonological awareness, and English L2 word learning (at Time 1 and 2). The results revealed that (1) only amplitude envelope rise time discrimination, independent of years of English learning, predicted English L2 word learning at Time 1, (2) Mandarin L1 phonological awareness, relative to Mandarin L1 prosodic awareness, made more contributions to English L2 word learning after controlling amplitude envelope rise time discrimination, and (3) successful English learners outperformed their unsuccessful peers on Mandarin L1 phonological awareness. Taken together, beginning English learners might use amplitude envelop rise time cuing syllable boundaries and rely on L1 prosodic and phonological awareness for English L2 word learning.

Lending a hand to speech

Abstract This study examines the effect of gestures on second language (L2) pitch measures and fluency in storytelling tasks. It is well documented that L2 learners commonly use gestures in conversations and storytelling. Research has shown that gestures benefit L2 word learning and recall, but it is still unclear to what extent gestures affect speech fluency and pitch range. We compared a series of speech fluency and pitch measures across two storytelling tasks: task repetition and explicit instruction on the use of gestures. By analysing the use of gestures in these tasks, we provide insights on how gestures can help L2 fluency and intonation.

Task complexity and task type

Abstract In Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), there is clearly a need for a balanced and flexible view of L1 use. Considering this, a matter of concern in TBLT is that learners might overuse their first language (L1) while performing complex tasks. To test this speculation, the present study investigated the effects of manipulating task complexity along resource-directing variables (+/− reasoning demands) of the Cognition Hypothesis on L1 use and its functions. Further it aimed to test the impacts of task type on L1 use and its functions. To do so, the interaction of 24 intermediate EFL learners while completing two different task types with two levels of task complexity was analyzed. The analysis of L1 words and turns indicated that both task complexity and task type affected L1 use significantly. The results further indicated that L1 was employed for a variety of purposes which were mainly affected by task complexity.

Phonetic accommodation in non-native directed speech supports L2 word learning and pronunciation

This study assessed whether Non-native Directed Speech (NNDS) facilitates second language (L2) learning, specifically L2 word learning and production. Spanish participants (N = 50) learned novel English words, presented either in NNDS or Native-Directed Speech (NDS), in two tasks: Recognition and Production. Recognition involved matching novel objects to their labels produced in NNDS or NDS. Production required participants to pronounce these objects’ labels. The novel words contained English vowel contrasts, which approximated Spanish vowel categories more (/i-ɪ/) or less (/ʌ-æ/). Participants in the NNDS group exhibited faster recognition of novel words, improved learning, and produced the /i-ɪ/ contrast with greater distinctiveness in comparison to the NDS group. Participants’ ability to discriminate the target vowel contrasts was also assessed before and after the tasks, with no improvement detected in the two groups. These findings support the didactic assumption of NNDS, indicating the relevance of the phonetic adaptations in this register for successful L2 acquisition.

Grasping Virtual Objects Benefits Lower Aptitude Learners’ Acquisition of Foreign Language Vocabulary

Theories of embodied cognition describe language acquisition and representation as dependent on sensorimotor experiences that are collected during learning. Whereas native language words are typically acquired through sensorimotor experiences, foreign language (L2) words are often learned by reading, listening or repeating bilingual word lists. Recently, grasping referent objects has been demonstrated to serve as a useful sensorimotor strategy for L2 vocabulary learning. The effects of grasping virtual objects, however, remain unknown. In a virtual reality cave, we trained adult participants (N = 46) having low language aptitude and high language aptitude on novel L2 words under three conditions. In an audiovisual (baseline) condition, participants were presented with written and spoken L2 words. In an audiovisual observation condition, participants additionally saw virtual visual objects that corresponded to the meanings of L2 words. In an audiovisual, an observation, and a grasping condition, participants were asked to grasp the virtual objects. Participants’ word learning was assessed in free and cued recall tests administered immediately after training. Relative to baseline learning, simply viewing virtual objects during learning benefitted both groups. As expected, grasping virtual objects was found to benefit vocabulary retention in low language aptitude learners. Interestingly, this benefit was not observed in high language aptitude learners. Language learning aptitude scores correlated with vocabulary learning outcomes in both audiovisual learning conditions, but not in the sensorimotor condition, suggesting that grasping altered the typical relationship between aptitude and language learning performance. The findings are interpreted in terms of differences in the extent to which procedural and declarative memory systems are accessed in low language aptitude and high language aptitude learners during sensorimotor-based vocabulary learning. Additionally, the results suggest that simulated interactions without tangible feedback can benefit learning. This outcome expands our understanding of how physical experience extends cognition and paves the way for the application of sensorimotor enrichment strategies to virtual environments.

Shared Loanword Recognition in German-English Bilinguals: The Role of Metrical Phonology.

The role of phonology in bilingual word recognition has focused on a phonemic level especially in the recognition of cognates. In this study, we examined differences in metrical structure to test whether L1 metrical structure influences the processing of L2 words. For that, we used words of Romance origin (e.g., reptile, signal), which both German and English have borrowed extensively. However, the existing metrical patterns are not identical nor are the borrowed vocabularies the same. Rather, those identical words differ systematically in their foot structure. We conducted a cross-modal form fragment priming EEG experiment (auditory-visual) with German native speakers who were highly proficient in English. Both behavioral and ERP results showed an effect of the native phonology and the loan status, that is, whether the loan exists only in the speaker's L2 or is shared across languages. Priming effects (RTs) were largest for nonshared loanwords indicating some interference from German (L1). This was also evident in a reduced N400 but only if the metrical structure aligned with German patterns for Germanic words, that is, two light syllables as in pigeon. If the words exist in both languages, metrical structure also mattered shown by the modulation of different ERP components across conditions. Overall, our study indicates that metrical phonology plays a role in loanword processing. Our data show that the more similar a word is in terms of its metrical phonology across L1 and L2, the more effortful the processing of a word within a priming paradigm indicating interference from the L1 phonology.

Predicting the development of Papiamento and Dutch word decoding efficiency in the Dutch Caribbean

Abstract We investigated the development of word decoding (Grades 4–6; 165 children) in Papiamento (L1) and Dutch (L2) in the postcolonial context of the Dutch Caribbean islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao. The results show a steady development over the upper Grades for both L1 Papiamento and L2 Dutch word decoding in that children became more efficient in word decoding over the years. However, the children were generally better decoders in L2 Dutch than in L1 Papiamento. Moreover, the initial language of decoding instruction did not matter for the development of word decoding. The groups were equally efficient in L1 and L2 word decoding in Grades 4–6. Furthermore, rapid naming and phonological awareness predicted L1 word decoding development, whereas rapid naming, phonological awareness, and working memory predicted L2 word decoding development. Finally, evidence was found for linguistic interdependencies for word decoding development from L1 to L2 and vice versa.

On effective learning of English collocations: From perspectives of distributed practice and semantic restructuring

AbstractKnowledge of collocations facilitates second language (L2) learning by enhancing accuracy and fluency. However, acquiring L2 collocations is often challenging for learners. One factor contributing to this difficulty is incongruency between first and second languages (e.g., draw distinctions in English corresponds to do distinctions in Japanese). One possible solution is to facilitate semantic restructuring, where learners develop their understanding of L2 words' semantic possibilities. For the restructuring of semantic knowledge to occur, repeated exposure to multiple collocations containing the same node word may be necessary (e.g., draw attention, draw a conclusion). However, how to facilitate semantic restructuring through repeated exposure is still unknown. Particularly, to what extent temporal distribution (i.e., spacing) of multiple collocations affects learning is an important issue to be examined. Based on recent research on collocation learning, the present article argues that a combination of massing and spacing can promote L2 collocation learning from the viewpoint of semantic restructuring. It also discusses some practical implications for effective L2 collocation learning.

English derived word recognition by Chinese‐English bilinguals: Testing the nature and time course of the component processes

ABSTRACT Research utilizing morphological priming has found that L2 speakers show facilitation from derived L2 primes, which could suggest morphological processing during derived L2 word recognition. However, the process of L2 derived word recognition is still poorly understood, with some arguing that the observed priming effects may not be morphological in nature. The present study is a partial replication of Rastle et al. and its extension to L2 English processing. Its purpose is to contribute to our understanding of the nature and time course of L2 derived word recognition. Following Rastle et al., I employed visual priming methodology to explore the activation of morphological, pseudomorphological, orthographic, and semantic processes during a later, central-lexical stage of L2 English derived word recognition by Mandarin Chinese-English bilinguals. The results replicated Rastle et al.’s findings with L1 English speakers. The L2 speakers exhibited morphological effects distinguishable from effects of form overlap, suggesting that surface form overlap cannot explain L2 facilitation from derived primes. These same L2 speakers further showed pseudomorphological facilitation distinguishable from surface form effects, indicative of the operation of a purely morpho-orthographic process at the later stage of L2 English word recognition and further suggesting L2 sensitivity to morphemic structure that cannot be explained by semantic effects. Results further showed a similar graded pattern of activation of morphological, pseudomorphological, and form mechanisms in L2 and L1 speakers of English that appears to be temporally shifted between the two speaker populations. Implications for L2 word recognition theory are discussed.

Observing gesture at learning enhances subsequent phonological and semantic processing of L2 words: An N400 study

This study employed the N400 event-related potential (ERP) to investigate how observing different types of gestures at learning affects the subsequent processing of L2 Mandarin words differing in lexical tone by L1 English speakers. The effects of pitch gestures conveying lexical tones (e.g., upwards diagonal movements for rising tone), semantic gestures conveying word meanings (e.g., waving goodbye for to wave), and no gesture were compared. In a lexical tone discrimination task, larger N400s for Mandarin target words mismatching vs. matching Mandarin prime words in lexical tone were observed for words learned with pitch gesture. In a meaning discrimination task, larger N400s for English target words mismatching vs. matching Mandarin prime words in meaning were observed for words learned with pitch and semantic gesture. These findings provide the first neural evidence that observing gestures during L2 word learning enhances subsequent phonological and semantic processing of learned L2 words.

Both L1 and L2 proficiency impact ToM reasoning in children aged 4 to 6. Painting a more nuanced picture of the relation between bilingualism and ToM

AbstractPrevious studies that contrasting bilinguals with monolinguals on Theory of Mind (ToM) have shown mixed results. We present a relatively large (N= 102) study comparing Polish–English sequential bilinguals living in the UK with Polish monolinguals living in Poland. Going beyond a simple group comparison, we explored the role of language proficiency and input in ToM abilities. A battery of eight tasks was used to measure ToM, and the groups were matched on age, gender, SES, IQ and L1 word comprehension. Although bilinguals did not differ from monolinguals in accuracy in ToM tasks, they demonstrated better reasoning abilities when providing justification for ToM responses. ToM accuracy scores were best predicted by L1 proficiency, but the justification scores were best predicted by both L1 and L2 proficiency. The findings suggest that the nuances of bilingual experience provide an important scaffolding context for ToM development.