Woolly Mammoth Research Articles

New data on trunk morphology in the woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach)

A well-preserved trunk (proboscis) of the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) found in 2010 in the area of the Oiyagosskii Yar, about 30 km west of the mouth of the Kondratievo River (Yakutia) is described (mammoth named Yuka). The distal part of trunk has a transverse expansion. In the expanded condition, it changes the trunk cross section from oval to ellipsoidal. The expansion is laterally framed by skin folds with sites of muscles making the trunk cross diameter twice as great. Trunk expansion has been recorded in three mammoths: Yuka, Kolyma mammoth, and Kirgilyakh mammoth calf. Structural details of the trunk expansion of the Kirgilyakh mammoth calf and Yuka are almost completely identical. This morphological feature distinguishes trunk of M. primigenius from Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus ones, the cross section of which remains oval throughout the trunk extent. The adaptive value of this unique trunk structure of the woolly mammoth in connection with cold climate conditions is discussed.

Notable Trade Book The First Drawing Written and Illustrated by Caldecott Medalist Mordicai Gerstein

As author and illustrator, Caldecott Medalist Mordicai Gerstein takes readers on a journey to the age of the woolly mammoth in The First Drawing. In this lesson, students explore the book, tracing the footsteps of a young boy who lived so many years ago and realize they are not so different from him. Children today face many of the same communication challenges, as does the main character, and have a need to express personal ideas and beliefs. Students identify their own interests and compare them to those of their classmates. With a partner, children explore communicating through imagery to express an idea or personal interest. Students explore and describe cultural similarities and difference between present day and the characters of the story. To finish the lesson, students work in groups to create a wall mural of Cave Art illustrating key aspects of what they consider important in our culture today.

Zooarchaeology of the layers from Dorochivtsy III (Ukraine)

Palaeolithic archaeological sites of the Western Ukraine are clustered along the Prut and Dniester Rivers. Different sites provided data enabling reconstruction of the paleoenvironment, chronology and cultures of human group during the Upper Paleolithic (notably Molodova V). During the second part of the Pleniglacial, between 23 000 and 20 000 years BP, palaeoclimatic variations took place. The intensification of cold and arid conditions is liable to force human groups to adapt to a changing environment. Little is known about this period, with only a few assemblages. Ongoing excavations continue to provide new data. The archaeological site of Dorochivtsy III has an important sequence stratigraphy with several archaeological layers. Among the seven Upper Palaeolithic layers, layers 6, 5, 4 and 3 testify to activities of a human group during the Upper Pleniglacial. We studied the faunal assemblages applying zooarchaeological methods, identifying mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), horse (Equus sp.) and fox (Alopex lagopus/Vulpes vulpes). The Gravettian layers 3, 4, 5 have anthropogenic clues in connection with subsistence activities oriented on reindeer, then horses, and finally fox. Concerning mammoths, we cannot define the modes of acquisition and use. These occupations have been interpreted as recurrent hunting occupations linked to procurement of local flint and lithic production for butchering activities. Layer 6 dated to 22 330 ± 100 BP is remarkable because of previously unseen practises. The lithic assemblage combined with bone industry and engraved tusk is a novel set of cultural elements in this area, called ancient Epigravettian. This layer testifies to the diversity of human activities during the Upper Pleniglacial and to the particular status of mammoth ivory as an artistic medium. Palynological data and taphonomic observations on bones indicate the persistence of relatively moist conditions during some periods, which could favour the movement of human groups. Although little is known about the Upper Pleniglacial period, Dorochivtsy III testifies to the continuity of a large exploitation of the territory of the Dniester valley.

Landscapes of the ‘Yuka’ mammoth habitat: A palaeobotanical approach

In August 2010, a well-preserved Mammuthus primigenius carcass was found along the coast of Oyogos Yar in the region of the Laptev Sea and the mummy was nicknamed ‘Yuka’. Frozen sediment samples from the area of skull condyles were collected for pollen and plant macrofossil analyses. The results from the palaeobotanical investigation confirmed that the Yuka mammoth lived during the optimum of the Kargin Interstadial (MIS3). The burial place of the mammoth could have been a small shallow freshwater pond with either stagnant or slowly moving water. The vegetation of the Oyogos Yar in MIS3 optimum was probably represented by zonal tundra-steppe combined with mesic-xeric meadows.

Tracking possible decline of woolly mammoth during the Gravettian in Dordogne (France) and the Ach Valley (Germany) using multi-isotope tracking (13C, 14C, 15N, 34S, 18O)

The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was an emblematic and key species of the so-called mammoth steppe ecosystem between ca. 110,000 and 12,000 years ago. Its contribution to human subsistence during the Gravettian period as source of raw material was documented in southwestern France and southwestern Germany, with some evidence of active hunting in the latter region. However, decreasing genetic diversity and increasing indications of nutritional stress point to a likely decline of this megaherbivore. The specificity of the ecological niche occupied by the woolly mammoth is clearly reflected by their collagen 13C and 15N abundances (δ13Ccoll and δ15Ncoll), measured on skeletal remains of the typical mammoth steppe. The abundances of carbon-13 in mammoth collagen are comparable to those of other grazers like horse (Equus sp.), while the nitrogen-15 abundances are significantly higher (about 3‰) than in the other herbivores, either horse or reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). During the Aurignacian and Gravettian occupation at Geißenklösterle in the Ach Valley (Germany), the mammoths had the expected stable isotope signature, but the nitrogen-15 of horses showed an unexpected overlap with those of the mammoth. This unusual pattern was already occurring during the Aurignacian, while the oxygen-18 abundances in bone phosphate (δ18Obp) of horse and reindeer were unchanged between Aurignacian and Gravettian periods, which rules out significant change in environmental and climatic conditions. Thus, we hypothesize that during the Aurignacian and Gravettian, the ecological niche of mammoth was intact but not occupied intensively by mammoths due to a decline in their population. This decline could be tentatively explained by human pressure through hunting. In Dordogne (France), decreasing horse and reindeer δ15Ncoll values coeval to decreasing horse δ18Obp values between the Aurignacian and the Early Gravettian periods reflected a clear change in the environment, while no contrast in δ15Ncoll values was observed between the Early and Final Gravettian at the Abri Pataud. The mammoth of Dordogne yielded slightly higher δ15Ncoll values than expected, probably as a consequence of the nursing effect since all the analyzed samples were ivory instead of bone. The direct dating and sulphur-34 measurement on the ivory of the Early Gravettian at Pataud showed that almost all of them were of contemporaneous and local origin. Significant contrasts in δ34Scoll values were found between the Dordogne and the Ach Valley for the same herbivores species, which confirms the potential of sulphur-34 in collagen as a mobility tracker.

Elephant natural history: a genomic perspective.

We review DNA-based studies of elephants and recently extinct proboscideans. The evidence indicates that little or no nuclear gene flow occurs between African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) and African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis), establishing that they comprise separate species. In all elephant species, males disperse, whereas females remain with their natal social group, leading to discordance in the phylogeography of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA patterns. Improvements in ancient DNA methods have permitted sequences to be generated from an increasing number of proboscidean fossils and have definitively established that the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is the closest living relative of the extinct woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius). DNA-based methods have been developed to determine the geographic provenance of confiscated ivory in an effort to aid the conservation of elephants.

Differential effects of temperature change and human impact on European Late Quaternary mammalian extinctions.

Species that inhabited Europe during the Late Quaternary were impacted by temperature changes and early humans, resulting in the disappearance of half of the European large mammals. However, quantifying the relative importance that each factor had in the extinction risk of species has been challenging, mostly due to the spatio-temporal biases of fossil records, which complicate the calibration of realistic and accurate ecological niche modeling. Here, we overcome this problem by using ecotypes, and not real species, to run our models. We created 40 ecotypes with different temperature requirements (mean temperature from -20°C to 25°C and temperature range from 10°C to 40°C) and used them to quantify the effect of climate change and human impact. Our results show that cold-adapted ecotypes would have been highly affected by past temperature changes in Europe, whereas temperate and warm-adapted ecotypes would have been positively affected by temperature change. Human impact affected all ecotypes negatively, and temperate ecotypes suffered the greatest impacts. Based on these results, the extinction of cold-adapted species like Mammuthus primigenius may be related to temperature change, while the extinction of temperate species, like Crocuta crocuta, may be related to human impact. Our results suggest that temperature change and human impact affected different ecotypes in distinct ways, and that the interaction of both impacts may have shaped species extinctions in Europe.

Isotopes stables (13C, 15N) du collagène des mammouths de Mezhyrich (Epigravettien, Ukraine) : implications paléoécologiques

The mammoth steppe ecosystem was characterized by a high diversity in large mammals species distributed on a vast geographical range. The isotopic analyses of the collagen of the faunal remains from this context testified the niche partitioning among large herbivores with a specialization in the types of consumed plants. In the case of the mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), systematic higher abundances in 15N are found for this species compared to those of other grazers in Eurasia and Alaska during the Upper Palaeolithic. This distinct isotopic signature reflects a specific ecological niche. The analyses of mammoth remains at the Epigravettian site of Mezhyrich (15,000–14,300 conv BP) reveal low abundances in 15N that are equivalent to those of the associated horses. Thus, the mammoth of Mezhyrich experienced a significant change in their environment and diet that probably led to the loss of their ecological niche. A likely direct competition with other large herbivores and the possible predation by wolves and human populations should be considered for the mammoth of the Ukrainian plains, long before their extirpation from the region.

Preserved brain of the Woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach 1799)) from the Yakutian permafrost

This paper describes the treatment and results of the fixation procedure, extraction, dissection, and data collection of the preserved Late Pleistocene brain of the mummified specimen from permafrost. The partial carcass of the Woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach 1799)) nicknamed “Yuka” was found in 2010 on the Dmitrii Laptev Sea coast (Northern Yakutia, Russia). It dates to 39,440–38,850 cal. BP. This fossil presents the unique opportunity to study the preserved brain from permafrost, with well-defined major gross anatomy features of the cerebrum and cerebellum and internal structures revealed by Computed tomography (CT) and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Anatomical description, CT data including volumetry, and results of the histological and electron microscopy study of the specimen are provided.

East Gravettian Khotylevo 2 site: Stratigraphy, archeozoology, and spatial organization of the cultural layer at the newly explored area of the site

The present paper discusses the spatial and stratigraphic analysis of an assemblage of archeological remains from the newly found point B (lettered in Cyrillic) of the Eastern Gravettian site Khotylevo 2. The new find was discovered by the Khotylevo Archaeological Expedition in 2005. The cultural layer of the site relates to a level of initial soil formation at the base of the Desna loess horizon. The stratigraphic position of the cultural layer at point B is typical of the entire Khotylevo 2 site and does not differ substantially from those at points А and Б. Currently, two closely related assemblages of archeological remains have been discovered at point B over an area of 45 m2. The first assemblage is noted for the presence of rounded shallow pits and embedded mammoth bones surrounding concentrations of bone coal; it also contains split animal bones, and flint splinters. Similar assemblages were discovered by F.M. Zavernyaev during the excavations at Khotylevo 2 in the 1970s. The second assemblage is marked by large clusters of intentionally arranged bones of woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius). There is a certain pattern traceable in the bone arrangement, similar to those observed in mammoth bone structures of the Anosovka-Mesin dwellings. Microstratigraphic correlation of the two assemblages considered together with the radiocarbon dates strongly suggests them to be of different ages. The most abundant bone remains within the studied area belong to woolly mammoth. The list of mammal species identified from this site shows no significant difference from species lists known from other sites of the Russian Plain dated to the same chronological interval. The scarcity of bones belonging to other herbivorous mammals may be due to the fact that no butchering was performed at this part of the site. The abundance of mammoth bones does not directly indicate simultaneous overkill of those animals; it is quite possible, however, that individual animals were killed periodically.

Enzootic diseases and extinction of mammoths as a reflection of deep geochemical changes in ecosystems of Northern Eurasia

The results of investigations performed on more than 23,500 mammoth bones and teeth in Northern Eurasia from 2003 to 2013 with the aim of revealing traces of enzootic diseases are presented here. The study focused on the Late Pleistocene “beast solonetz” sites (i.e. mineral licks/oases) of Western Siberia: Shestakovo-Kochegur (25.9–17.8 ka BP) in the Kemerovo region, Volchia Griva (17.8–11 ka BP) in the Novosibirsk region and Lugovskoye (16.5–10 ka BP) nearby Khanty-Mansiysk. Additional sites studies included sites (30–10 ka BP) from other regions of Northern Eurasia also with mass mammoth remains (Gari, Berelyokh, Krasnoyarskaya Kurya, Krakow Spadzista Street, Předmosti, Dolni Věstonice, Milovice and others). The results suggest that just at the end of the Pleistocene, large herbivorous mammals experienced a powerful geochemical stress which would manifest as mass destructive changes of bones due to enzootic diseases caused by mineral deficiency. Remains characterized by destructive changes are common and prevalent in all collections. Maximum damage was discovered in the bones and teeth of Mammuthus primigenius Blum. The most typical signs of osteodystrophy were osteoporosis, osteofibrosis, osteomalacia, osteolysis, cartilage atrophy, exostoses and fractures, resulting in the formation of false joints, ulcers and friction grooves on articular surfaces. The results of the paleoecological analysis suggest that the larger part of Northern Eurasia at the end of Pleistocene was extremely unfavourable for the existence of megafauna. The disruption of the abiotic relationships caused by the cardinal transformation of geochemical landscapes could have become the main reason for the wide-spread enzootia and, finally, the extinction of the mammoth.

Preliminary analyses of the frozen mummies of mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), bison (Bison priscus) and horse (Equus sp.) from the Yana‐Indigirka Lowland, Yakutia, Russia

The frozen bodies of a young woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), a wild horse (Equus sp.) and a steppe bison (Bison priscus) were recently found in the northern Yakutia (northeastern Siberia). All specimens have preserved bones, skin and soft tissues. Whereas the woolly mammoth and the Pleistocene horse were represented by partial frozen bodies, the steppe bison body was recovered in an absolutely complete state. All specimens were found frozen in the permafrost, with some of the tissues mummified. The wild horse and steppe bison are of Holocene age, and the mammoth is of Late Pleistocene age.

Carbon and oxygen stable isotope compositions of late Pleistocene mammal teeth from dolines of Ajoie (Northwestern Switzerland)

Fossils of megaherbivores from eight late Pleistocene 14C- and OSL-dated doline infillings of Ajoie (NW Switzerland) were discovered along the Transjurane highway in the Swiss Jura. Carbon and oxygen analyses of enamel were performed on forty-six teeth of large mammals (Equus germanicus, Mammuthus primigenius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, and Bison priscus), coming from one doline in Boncourt (~80ka, marine oxygen isotope stage MIS5a) and seven in Courtedoux (51–27ka, late MIS3), in order to reconstruct the paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental conditions of the region. Similar enamel δ13C values for both periods, ranging from −14.5 to −9.2‰, indicate that the megaherbivores lived in a C3 plant-dominated environment. Enamel δ18OPO4 values range from 10.9 to 16.3‰ with a mean of 13.5±1.0‰ (n=46). Mean air temperatures (MATs) were inferred using species-specific δ18OPO4–δ18OH2O-calibrations for modern mammals and a present-day precipitation δ18OH2O-MAT relation for Switzerland. Similar average MATs of 6.6±3.6°C for the deposits dated to ~80ka and 6.5±3.3°C for those dated to the interval 51–27ka were estimated. This suggests that these mammals in the Ajoie area lived in mild periods of the late Pleistocene with MATs only about 2.5°C lower than modern-day temperatures.

Pathological changes on the ribs of woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius)

Woolly mammoth ribs are often examined less closely, as they do not provide much (if any) information about the age, sex or number of individuals. Nevertheless, they bear various kinds of pathologies and therefore can be one of the sources of information about life, physical condition, and diseases of the animals. This study was conducted on mammoth ribs from some of the largest mammoth bone assemblages in Central Europe, the Polish site Kraków Spadzista street as well as the Moravian sites Milovice I and Předmostí. We present all kinds of the pathologies encountered.There are two categories of bone changes that can be found on mammoth ribs: those resulting from trauma and those resulting from disease. The discovered posttraumatic bone changes include healed fractures. Some of the osteolytic changes on ribs also fall into this category, whereas other pathologies are most probably a result of neoplasms and osteoporosis. Examination of the osteoporotic-like changes was based on the analysis of bone porosity. In order to distinguish the ribs of young individuals from those with osteoporosis-like changes (loss of bone density and deteriorated microarchitecture), a scale of mammoth rib porosity has been constructed. Comparison of the physical condition of mammoths from the examined sites has been conducted.

Variations of the tooth morphology of the Woolly Mammoth Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach, 1799) (Mammalia: Elephanthidae)

Cases of variations in the morphology of isolated upper teeth M3 of Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach, 1799) from the south-east of West Siberia and Yakutiya are described. The anomaly of M. primigenius tooth from Yakutiya is expressed in changing of the tooth crown shape and position of dental plates in M3. Development of the anomaly was probably associated with a delay of loosing the tooth of the previous generation (M2) and disorder of the formation of M3 at the stage of its mineralization. Two M3 teeth from Novosibirsk Province are characterized by changing of the wearing surface and root shape. One of them shows two wearing surfaces in parallel to initial masticatory surface, shifted lingually. The upper part of the root is bent buccally, that is connected with the falling out of the tooth from the alveolus. The appearance of such a change, presumably, is connected with a mechanical injury of the cheek region of skull. The reconstruction of the formation of this tooth anomaly in M. primigenius was carried out. The second of these teeth also has a wrong position of the masticatory surface, which has a gradual curvature from nearly perpendicular (to enamel plates) in the anterior part of the tooth to about 45° in the posterior plates.

Assessing the Maximum Contribution from Ancient Populations

Ancestral relationships between populations separated by time represent an often neglected dimension in population genetics, a field which historically has focused on analysis of spatially distributed samples from the same point in time. Models are usually straightforward when two time-separated populations are assumed to be completely isolated from all other populations. However, this is usually an unrealistically stringent assumption when there is gene flow with other populations. Here, we investigate continuity in the presence of gene flow from unknown populations. This setup allows a more nuanced treatment of questions regarding population continuity in terms of "level of contribution" from a particular ancient population to a more recent population. We propose a statistical framework which makes use of a biallelic marker sampled at two different points in time to assess population contribution, and present two different interpretations of the concept. We apply the approach to published data from a prehistoric human population in Scandinavia (Malmström H, Gilbert MTP, Thomas MG, Brandström M, Storå J, Molnar P, Andersen PK, Bendixen C, Holmlund G, Götherström A, et al. 2009. Ancient DNA reveals lack of continuity between Neolithic hunter-gatherers and contemporary Scandinavians. Curr Biol. 19:1758-1762) and Pleistocene woolly mammoth (Barnes I, Shapiro B, Lister A, Kuznetsova T, Sher A, Guthrie D, Thomas MG. 2007. Genetic structure and extinction of the woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius. Curr Biol. 17:1072-1075; Debruyne R, Chu G, King CE, Bos K, Kuch M, Schwarz C, Szpak P, Gröcke DR, Matheus P, Zazula G, et al. 2008. Out of America: ancient DNA evidence for a new world origin of late quaternary woolly mammoths. Curr Biol. 18:1320-1326).

Unexpected palaeoecological features of the Middle and Late Pleistocene large herbivores in southwestern Germany revealed by stable isotopic abundances in tooth enamel

Species flexibility in diet and habitat and their ability to tolerate a range of unfavourable ecological conditions and survive in unusual habitats accompanied by unexpected faunal components has been determined from various research fields. We present the dietary and environmental reconstructions of interglacial and glacial large mammals from central Germany (Bockstein and Vogelherd caves, Steinheim and Mauer) during the Middle and Late Pleistocene, using carbon and oxygen stable isotope relative abundances in the carbonate fraction of tooth enamel. The same species existed in central Europe during different temperature and ecosystem regimes. It appeared that the species during the glacial periods demonstrated much narrower ranges δ13C and δ18O than during the interglacial periods and at the dawn of the species origination. Intriguingly, the early woolly mammoth Mammuthus primigenius fraasi apparently lived in much milder conditions than the late woolly mammoth Mammuthus primigenius primigenius, and shared similar diet and habitat with the straight-tusked forest elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus. Bovids existed in extremely open habitat at Steinheim, probably during the Saalian glacial, compared to other glacial species. Woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis and the early woolly mammoth came to occupy similar environments only later, during the Weichselian glacial period in Bockstein and Vogelherd caves. A so-called “steppe rhinoceros” Stephanorhinus hemitoechus occurred in the forested habitat, along with the Merck's rhino Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis. The horses appear to have preferred warmer and denser habitat than the woolly rhinoceros during the Pleistocene. The Pleistocene donkeys shared the ecological niches between bovids and horses. These new results demonstrate that stable isotope analyses can be extremely helpful to determine more detailed paleodiet and paleohabitat of extinct species. It appears that the deviation of the inferred palaeoecological patterns from the patterns deduced from modern survivors' ecology increases with increasing age, and species appeared more flexible at their origin.

Cloning the mammoth: a complicated task or just a dream?

Recently there has been growing interest in applying the most advanced embryological tools, particularly cloning, to bring extinct species back to life, with a particular focus on the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius). Mammoth's bodies found in the permafrost are relatively well preserved, with identifiable nuclei in their tissues. The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature published on the topic, and to present the strategies potentially suitable for a mammoth cloning project, with a frank assessment of their feasibility and the ethical issues involved.

The most interesting finds of Late Pleistocene megafauna, Vologda Region (Russia)

The paleontological collections of museums of northern European Russia include unpredictable finds, such as the tooth of the forest elephant Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus (Falconer) in the collection of the Cherepovets Museum of Nature. The aim of the research is to define more precisely its systematic reference, age, and individual characteristics. The find indicates that the forest zone extended to 59–60°N during the Mikulin (Eemian) interglacial.The paleontological collections of Vologda regional museums include exhibits referred to the Late Pleistocene, namely Mammuthus primigenius, Equus sp., Rangifer tarandus, Bison priscus, and Ovibos pallantis. The majority of the finds conform to the transitional periods of warm and cold spells of the middle Valdai. Some Holocene finds of the region indicate the existence of favorable conditions for large-mammal species to inhabit the areas near 60°N.

Megafaunal split ends: microscopical characterisation of hair structure and function in extinct woolly mammoth and woolly rhino

The large extinct megafaunal species of the Late Pleistocene, Mammuthus primigenius (woolly mammoth) and Coelodonta antiquitatis (woolly rhino) are renowned for their pelage. Despite this, very little research has been conducted on the form and function of hair from these iconic species. Using permafrost preserved hair samples from seven extinct megafaunal remains, this study presents an in-depth microscopical characterisation of preservation, taphonomy, microbial damage, pigmentation and morphological features of more than 420 hairs. The presence of unique structural features in hairs, from two extinct megafauna species, such as multiple medullae and unparallelled stiffness suggests evolution of traits that may have been critical for their survival in the harsh arctic environment. Lastly, despite popular depictions of red-haired and/or uniformly coloured mammoths, a closer examination of pigmentation reveals that mammoth coats may have exhibited a mottled/variegated appearance and that their ‘true’ colours were not the vivid red/orange colour often depicted in reconstructions. Insights gained from microscopical examination of hundreds of extinct megafauna hairs demonstrate the value of extracting as much morphological data as possible from ancient hairs prior to destructive sampling for molecular analyses.