Woodland Birds Research Articles

Evaluating the evidence of culling a native species for conservation benefits

AbstractControlling problem species for conservation can be fraught, particularly when native species are subject to lethal control. The noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala), has been the target of numerous lethal control efforts. Outcomes of these noisy miner removals have varied substantially, so identifying the circumstances under which they are effective is essential for ethical and effective management. We compiled data for all identified noisy miner removals (n = 45), including both permit‐based and unofficial removals. We investigated whether methodological and ecological factors explained the effectiveness of removals in reducing noisy miner density or increasing woodland bird richness and abundance. The only predictor of any measure of success was time between first and final culls which was positively related to reduction in noisy miner density. Surprisingly, despite removals mainly failing to reduce noisy miner density to below a threshold above which noisy miners impact smaller birds, woodland birds usually still increased. Disrupted social structure as noisy miners recolonized may have led to less effective aggressive exclusion of small birds. Further removals may not need to reduce noisy miner density to below this threshold to benefit woodland birds, but consistent monitoring and reporting would support better evaluation of effectiveness and correlates of success.

Seasonal Dynamics and Diversity of Haemosporidians in a Natural Woodland Bird Community in Slovakia

Despite the ubiquity of disease seasonality, mechanisms behind the fluctuations in seasonal diseases are still poorly understood. Avian hemosporidiosis is increasingly used as a model for ecological and evolutionary studies on disease dynamics, but the results are complex, depending on the focus (hosts, parasites, vectors) and scale (individuals, community, populations) of the study. Here, we examine the local diversity of haemosporidian parasites and the seasonal patterns of infections, parasite richness, and diversity in a natural woodland bird community in Slovakia. In 35 avian species, we detected 111, including 19 novel, haemosporidian cytochrome b lineages. The highest numbers of lineages were detected during spring and autumn, corresponding with higher avian species richness and infection prevalence in the avian community during these periods of time. Nevertheless, the haemosporidian community in the local breeders in summer was relatively stable, Haemoproteus lineages dominated in the local avian haemosporidian community, and only few parasite lineages were abundant within each genus. While prevailing Leucocytozoon infections in spring suggest that the majority of sampled birds wintered in the Mediterranean region, Plasmodium infections in spring can be due to relapses in reproductively active short-distance migrants. Multiple haemosporidian infections, both intra- and inter-generic ones, were common in the local avian community. Infection intensity peaked during summer and tended to be higher in older birds, pointing to the role of supressed immunity in reproductively active birds.

Local management or wider context: What determines the value of farm revegetation plantings for birds?

AbstractSmall‐scale revegetation plantings on farms are common to restoration efforts in agricultural regions worldwide. Such plantings provide habitat for diverse faunal groups. A key question concerns the degree to which their value for biodiversity is influenced by the features of individual plantings, which can be controlled by local land managers, or by broader‐scale drivers in the wider landscape.We developed a conceptual model of factors of potential influence on birds in revegetation plantings at different spatial scales. To test this model, we surveyed native birds in 133 plantings in south‐eastern Australia. Regression models were used to compare the effect of ‘habitat‐’, ‘patch‐’, ‘farm‐’ and ‘landscape‐’ scale variables on species richness (of woodland and open country birds) and the occurrence of individual species in plantings. We further tested whether the influence of variables representing local actions was swamped by larger‐scale variables.Birds that occupied plantings were influenced by variables at all scales. Woodland birds were consistently richer and more likely to use older plantings (patch scale) with higher floristic richness (habitat scale), and surrounded by more wooded vegetation (at patch, farm and landscape scales). Open country species responded positively to the density of live trees (habitat scale) and the presence of large remnant tree/s (patch scale) in plantings.Variables representing local management actions generally maintained a strong influence on birds in plantingsirrespectiveof the influence of broader drivers. Few relationships between bird species and planting attributes were contingent on features of the surrounding landscape; those that were suggested woodland birds aremore responsiveto local actions when broad‐scale vegetation cover is greater.Synthesis and applications. Land managers can enhance the conservation value of plantings by (a) planting a greater diversity of trees and shrubs and (b) locating revegetation near other vegetation or around mature remnant tree/s. These actions will measurably increase the value of plantings for birds, irrespective of larger‐scale drivers. Nonetheless, the important role of increased vegetation cover across broader agricultural landscapes emphasises that the collective efforts of individuals and larger initiatives are critical for conservation.

Spatial and temporal differences in the foraging behaviour of birds in a mixed eucalypt forest and woodland on the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales

ABSTRACT In Australia’s eucalypt forests and woodlands, co-habiting birds differ in the foraging manoeuvres or methods used to search for and take prey, the substrates and plants on which prey are found, and the heights at which foraging takes place. On the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, eucalypt forest and woodland birds foraged on different substrates between study plots, seasons, and years. As a result, the proportions of foraging manoeuvres differed in space and time as different foraging methods were used to obtain food from different substrates. Of the 32 species tested for the summer of 1980/81, 24 foraged differently between one or more of the three plots studied. In winter, nine of 15 species on two plots foraged differently between plots. Differences in foraging were found between seasons and/or years for 20 species, including when data from individual plots were combined to test for differences in foraging between summer and winter. Of 70 comparisons of foraging behaviour for individual plots, that is, excluding combined plot data, 50 differed between seasons and/or years. Significant spatial and temporal differences in foraging were recorded for all foraging guilds. Bark and foliage foragers differed most frequently between pairs of plots in all seasons and years, with aerial foragers showing the fewest differences. Between seasons and years differences were greatest among ground-foragers and foliage-foragers where respectively 76% and 80% of intraspecies comparisons on individual plots differed. The differences were the result of temporal and spatial differences in the types and abundances of foraging substrates and the prey available to foraging birds. Each species has its own unique requirements and management targeted at one or a few species will disadvantage others. Consequently temporal and spatial habitat heterogeneity is necessary for the conservation of avian biodiversity.

A seven‐year study of the response of woodland birds to a large‐scale wildfire and the role of proximity to unburnt habitat

AbstractFire is a major ecological driver in many Australian ecosystems, and large‐scale wildfires can impact on faunal assemblages at a landscape scale. Monitoring the response of the avian community and individual bird species following a 92 039 ha wildfire in the Pilliga Forest, in temperate inland south‐eastern Australia, showed an initial decline in species richness and changes in community composition, followed by gradual recovery. Recovery was not complete by the end of the seven‐year study. Eighteen species (including Speckled Warbler Chthonicola sagittata and Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis) were identified as likely to be fire sensitive and nine species (including Australian Magpie Cracticus tibicen and Red‐capped Robin Petroica goodenovii) as likely to respond positively to fire at the time scale of this study. Another 11 species (including Dusky Woodswallow Artamus cyanopterus and Jacky Winter Microeca fascinans) appeared to favour burnt areas close to the fire edge. Guild‐level patterns included an overall negative response to fire by insectivores, granivores/frugivores and declining woodland birds and a positive response by predators. The avian community recovered more quickly at burnt sites close to (within 2 km of) the fire edge compared to more remote sites more than 4 km from unburnt habitat, suggesting that proximity to unburnt areas (and therefore fire extent) is likely to be a key consideration in understanding the post‐fire recovery of birds.

Faecal metabarcoding reveals pervasive long-distance impacts of garden bird feeding.

Supplementary feeding of wildlife is widespread, being undertaken by more than half of households in many countries. However, the impact that these supplemental resources have is unclear, with impacts largely considered to be restricted to urban ecosystems. We reveal the pervasiveness of supplementary foodstuffs in the diet of a wild bird using metabarcoding of blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) faeces collected in early spring from a 220 km transect in Scotland with a large urbanization gradient. Supplementary foodstuffs were present in the majority of samples, with peanut (Arachis hypogaea) the single commonest (either natural or supplementary) dietary item. Consumption rates exhibited a distance decay from human habitation but remained high at several hundred metres from the nearest household and continued to our study limit of 1.4 km distant. Supplementary food consumption was associated with a near quadrupling of blue tit breeding density and a 5-day advancement of breeding phenology. We show that woodland bird species using supplementary food have increasing UK population trends, while species that do not, and/or are outcompeted by blue tits, are likely to be declining. We suggest that the impacts of supplementary feeding are larger and more spatially extensive than currently appreciated and could be disrupting population and ecosystem dynamics.

The role of Natura 2000 in relation to breeding birds decline on multiple land cover types and policy implications

The Natura 2000 network of protected sites is the pillar of biodiversity conservation in Europe. Although the Natura 2000 network directly addresses birds, these have shown worrying declining trends. It is therefore crucial to assess the potential contribution of Natura 2000 conservation measures. In this paper, we use a replicable method to model bird trends in the period 2000–2015 and the effects of Natura 2000 protection, across land cover classes, on regional abundances and local species richness and diversity. We model bird trends in Veneto, a North-Eastern Italian Region with areas among the richest in bird species in Italy. Bird data were derived from the national breeding bird monitoring scheme. Breeding birds showed declining trends at the regional level, confirming national and continental trends, particularly on agricultural and natural areas. The land cover class, rather than Natura 2000, mostly influenced population trends; however, it was possible to observe slightly higher estimates of species richness and diversity in Natura 2000 sites. Despite the absolute higher estimates of richness and diversity over the investigated period, farmland and woodland bird species had steeper declining trends inside Natura 2000 than outside, matching the values of the areas outside the network at the end of the survey period. We conclude that the Natura 2000 network capacity to buffer biodiversity loss and act as a species-pool for non-protected areas is decreasing over time, mainly with regards to farmland and woodland birds. Natura 2000 implementation must be improved: conservation objectives and measures, management, and monitoring should be better integrated into existing plans and funding should be made more efficiently available for Natura 2000.

Homeward bound: canopy cover and species identity influence non-breeding season homing success and speed in forest birds

BackgroundEfficient and safe movement is fundamental for wild birds to thrive in their environments. For arboreal forest animals, especially birds, canopy cover has a large impact on birds’ daily movements and is a crucial component of conservation strategies seeking to retain avian population in disturbed or urban habitats.MethodsWe translocated woodland bird species utilizing different forest strata during two non-breeding seasons in Gainesville, FL, USA. We used linear model and generalized linear model to examine the effects of canopy cover and species identity on homing success and speed.ResultsAmong our study species of Tufted Titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor), Carolina Chickadee (Poecile carolinensis), and Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), we found that Carolina Chickadees and Tufted Titmice were more likely to return than Northern Cardinals. Among birds that successfully returned, homing speed is significantly affected by forest canopy cover and species identity (titmice had higher homing speed than cardinals). Birds return much faster in landscape with higher canopy cover.ConclusionsThis study presented evidence of species identity’s effect on homing success and speed in common feeder bird species in Southeast US and provided further evidence that bird movements in the suburban land cover are constrained by low canopy cover.

Scale dependency of joint species distribution models challenges interpretation of biotic interactions

AbstractAimSeparating the biotic and abiotic factors controlling species distributions has been a long‐standing challenge in ecology and biogeography. Joint species distribution models (JSDMs) have emerged as a promising statistical framework towards this objective by simultaneously modelling the environmental responses of multiple species and approximating species associations based on patterns in their (co‐)occurrences. However, the signature of biotic interactions should be most evident at fine spatial resolutions. Here, we test how the resolution of input data affects the inferences from JSDMs.LocationSwitzerland.TaxonBirds.MethodsUsing standardized survey data of 43 woodland bird species and 8 climatic, topographic and vegetation structural predictors, we fit JSDMs at different spatial resolutions (125–1000 m) and sampling periods (1 and 5 years). In addition, we calculate functional similarity among all species as an independent proxy of biotic interactions, specifically competition. We then assess how JSDM performance and estimates vary with the spatial resolution of the input data and test whether species associations are consistent across grain sizes and with the alternative approach based on functional similarity.ResultsOur results show better model performance at coarser spatial resolutions and for longer sampling periods. Although pairwise species associations estimated in JSDMs were generally shifted towards positive values, we found a higher proportion of negative associations at fine spatial resolutions. Strikingly, estimates were not consistent across spatial scales and frequently switched between positive and negative values. Moreover, estimated species associations tended to be more positive for functionally similar species.Main conclusionsOur results show that species associations are more differentiated, that is, cover a broader range of values, at finer spatial resolutions. Yet, their positive correlation with functional similarity and the general over‐representation of positive associations suggest that shared responses to unobserved environmental predictors rather than biotic interactions underlie these scaling effects, cautioning against a naive interpretation of species associations estimated by JSDMs at any spatial scale.

Making a difference for the Swift Parrot and other declining woodland birds

Making a difference for the Swift Parrot and other declining woodland birds

Ongoing declines of woodland birds: Are restoration plantings making a difference?

Woodland birds are a species assemblage of conservation concern, and their persistence in fragmented agricultural landscapes is dependent on both the preservation of existing woodland remnants and the implementation of restoration plantings. However, little is known about the habitat-use and persistence of birds in fragmented agricultural landscapes. We present a detailed, population-oriented study of woodland birds in temperate eucalypt woodland restoration plantings and remnant woodland patches in the South-west Slopes bioregion of New South Wales, Australia. First, we undertook a 3-yr mark-recapture project to assess annual survival and site fidelity in restoration plantings and woodland remnants. We supplemented our recapture efforts with resightings of color-banded individuals. Second, we tracked individual birds of two species, Superb Fairywren (Malurus cyaneus) and Willie Wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys), and documented snapshots of their home ranges and movement patterns during the breeding season. Annual survival in the woodland bird assemblage was lower than expected (51%). Home ranges of the Superb Fairywren were positively correlated with patch size, and were constrained by patch edges in linear sites. Superb Fairywrens and Willie Wagtails were more likely to travel longer distances between substrates while foraging in linear sites. Willie Wagtails engaged in significant gap-crossing (up to 400m) between adjacent habitat patches. Our findings indicate that (1) patch isolation and certain patch configurations place resident birds at an energetic disadvantage, and (2) in our study area, woodland bird populations are continuing to decline. We recommend landscape-scale habitat restoration programs aim to address ongoing population declines. Studies such as ours conducted over longer time periods would provide a deeper understanding of habitat use and population processes of woodland birds in fragmented agricultural landscapes.

Synergistic impacts of aggressive species on small birds in a fragmented landscape

Abstract Attempts to conserve threatened species in fragmented landscapes are often challenging because factors such as habitat loss, habitat degradation and dominant species interact to reduce threatened species’ capacity to survive and reproduce. Understanding how threatening and mitigating processes interact is critical if conservation measures are to be effective. We used data from long‐term monitoring of bird populations and multivariate latent variable models to quantify how Australian woodland birds respond to the presence of the Noisy Miner, a despotic species known to exclude other bird species. We then investigated the extent to which the presence of other aggressive species exacerbates the impacts of the Noisy Miner, and to what extent these impacts can be mitigated by dense midstorey plantings. We found strong synergies between the Noisy Miner and two other aggressive species (Grey Butcherbird and Pied Butcherbird), despite weak effects of butcherbirds in isolation. The impacts of aggressive birds are most pronounced for small‐bodied species, but these impacts are lessened in the presence of high midstorey cover. Synthesis and applications. Accounting for interactions reveals that revegetation may be capable of improving conservation outcomes even when the proximate cause of species declines (i.e. exclusion or predation by aggressive bird species) cannot be managed directly.

Influence of inundation characteristics on the distribution of dryland floodplain vegetation communities

Semi-arid floodplain vegetation is an essential component of floodplain and terrestrial ecosystems due to the wide range of services provided for waterbirds, woodland birds, amphibians and mammals, together with their contribution to natural carbon sequestration. Since overbank flooding has been considered the driving factor of vegetation distribution on floodplains, sustainable water resource management requires a better understanding of the influence of inundation on vegetation distribution. We examined the relationship between the distribution of four flood-dependant vegetation communities and associated long term inundation metrics on the upper Darling River floodplain using electivity analysis and a generalised additive model (GAM) by generating a total of 10,478 individual inundation maps with a high spatial resolution over a period of 29 years. Our results show that the four dominant vegetation communities are situated differently in relation to inundation attributes. The inundation metrics better explained the variation in the distribution of River Red Gum than those of Black box, Coolabah and Lignum communities. We found that the floodplain forests and woodlands in the upper Darling can survive longer periods of drought and shorter inundation duration than previously reported. The results provide practical information for ecosystem management by offering a means of predicting changes in vegetation distribution in relation to alteration in flow regime resulting from water planning arrangements or climate change.

Birds of Edgbaston Reserve, central-western Queensland, including notes on significant and threatened species

Localities at the intersection of bioclimatic zones can produce interesting bird-community assemblages. Edgbaston Reserve, in central-western Queensland, known for the high biodiversity of its artesian springs complex, sits within the intersection of the Torresian, Bassian and Eyrean bioclimatic zones and straddles the intersection of two bioregions on the western edge of the Great Dividing Range. Here we present bird records accumulated through standardised surveys and opportunistic observations. A total of 143 species of birds was detected on Edgbaston Reserve. From these data we report on notable species recorded and the significance of the avifauna community found on this Reserve. In addition to Edgbaston conserving artesian-spring habitat and threatened aquatic species, we highlight the importance of this Reserve for the preservation of woodland and arid birds.

Avifaunal responses after two decades of Polylepis forest restoration in central Argentina

ABSTRACT The high Andean Polylepis woodlands are home to a unique biota, including an outstanding avifauna. They are one of the most threatened mountain ecosystems worldwide; accordingly, they have been the object of the first restoration initiatives in South America. Here, we evaluated the effectiveness of 20-year Polylepis australis woodland restoration efforts to recover the woodland bird communities. We recorded bird diversity and abundance in an ongoing restoration site (with a high proportion of woodland) and in a control site, where no active restoration efforts were made (with a high proportion of grasslands and bare soil), 15 and 20 years after the start of the restoration project. We compared the avifauna of these sites with that of reference mature woodlands, using published records of the study region. At the ongoing restoration site, bird diversity increased over time, as well as abundances of species associated with P. australis, whereas those parameters remained stable at the control site. Our results are the first evidence that active restoration of P. australis entails passive restoration of the avifauna occurring in these unique upland forests.

Bird alpha, beta and functional diversities across three peri-urban woodland stands along an anthropogenic disturbance gradient: is formal protection a guarantee for ecological integrity?

Urban woodlands are significant as refugia for species of wild birds which contribute to provisioning a wide range of ecological services beneficial to nature and to humans. Due to the increasingly small and fragmental structure of these habitats, arising from constant expansion of city infrastructure, these birds are in increasing conservation peril with serious ramifications to the ecological and touristic values they represent. We assessed the alpha, beta and functional diversities of birds in three small woodland stands within the metropolis of Nairobi, Kenya and compared their variations along an anthropogenic disturbance gradient (Low, Moderate; High) based on relative openness, vegetation cover and rate of human visitation. Birds were surveyed using timed species counts during six sampling periods and grouped into three diet-guilds and three vertical foraging strata to assess compositional and assemblage turnover responses to disturbance. Functional overlaps in birds’ ecological roles were also evaluated, and potential candidate species for monitoring disturbance trends were identified. Alpha diversities were determined using Chao1 species estimator, and beta diversity evaluated through the PERMDISP function and main-test Permanova in PERMANOVA+ add-on of Primer-E, to assess species turnovers. Parameters were compared cross-site using general linear models while indicator species were identified using Indval function in R. Significant responses to impacts of anthropogenic disturbance were observed in abundance of birds overall, abundance of upper-stratum species, and in terms of alpha diversity of carnivores but not for other guilds. On the other hand, species turnovers occurred along the disturbance gradient for birds overall, in frugivores and also for both upper- and lower-stratum species. Species functional redundancies, depicting diminished habitat complexities, were detected in the most disturbed site for birds overall, amongst carnivores, all herbivores combined, and among the lower and middle-stratum species, but were not evident for birds overall in the low- or moderately-disturbed sites, nor among upper-stratum bird species. Only two species, both carnivorous, qualified as potential candidates for monitoring disturbance trends across the three woodland sites. These results demonstrate negative effects of anthropogenic disturbance on peri-urban woodland bird assemblage and composition, and greater resilience of taxonomic over functional diversity in response to such disturbance, but also that while formal protection may enhance bird’s community-level functional roles, not all guilds may benefit. Mitigating effects of disturbance requires measures for improving habitat structural heterogeneity to broaden birds’ assemblage composition, diversify their ecosystem roles at all levels and promote their site-based avi-tourism potential.

Best environmental predictors of breeding phenology differ with elevation in a common woodland bird species.

Temperatures in mountain areas are increasing at a higher rate than the Northern Hemisphere land average, but how fauna may respond, in particular in terms of phenology, remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to assess how elevation could modify the relationships between climate variability (air temperature and snow melt‐out date), the timing of plant phenology and egg‐laying date of the coal tit (Periparus ater). We collected 9 years (2011–2019) of data on egg‐laying date, spring air temperature, snow melt‐out date, and larch budburst date at two elevations (~1,300 m and ~1,900 m asl) on a slope located in the Mont‐Blanc Massif in the French Alps. We found that at low elevation, larch budburst date had a direct influence on egg‐laying date, while at high‐altitude snow melt‐out date was the limiting factor. At both elevations, air temperature had a similar effect on egg‐laying date, but was a poorer predictor than larch budburst or snowmelt date. Our results shed light on proximate drivers of breeding phenology responses to interannual climate variability in mountain areas and suggest that factors directly influencing species phenology vary at different elevations. Predicting the future responses of species in a climate change context will require testing the transferability of models and accounting for nonstationary relationships between environmental predictors and the timing of phenological events.

Bird diversity along a riparian corridor in a moderate urban landscape

Civilization built around rivers directly affects riparian corridor structure and ecology. Degradation, pollution, and deterioration along riparian corridors in urban landscapes change species composition and biodiversity. Birds are one of the most vulnerable taxa to ecological changes. The main objective of our study was to spatially compare bird species richness, abundance, and community structure along the Asar River, an urban riparian corridor in Düzce, Turkey. We identified 63 bird species, comprising 6722 individuals, and classified them into one of three groups: generalist species (11 species), woodland species (40 species), and waterbird species (12 species). Bird species richness was positively related to vegetative cover and negatively to urbanization. Richness was low in the winter and was higher during spring and summer. Riparian Quality Index (RQI) scores (mean = 54.8 ± 33.7; max. = 97 and min. = 5) were relatively low for all sampling plots and was reduced by human activities (e.g., roads, farmland, settlement). The number of woodland bird species changed positively (r = 0.71) with RQI. The generalist bird species, adapted to urbanization, were more common around settlements and open areas. Human population and settlement around Asar River increased one-third and farmland and natural habitat decreased one-fifth during the last decade. The area has high potential for growth and increased urbanization, thus increasing the pressure on the natural areas. Activities that diminish the amount of tree cover in the riparian corridor should be avoided. Habitat restoration and rehabilitation will increase RQI values, which can be used as indicators for bird richness in urban landscapes and benefit avian diversity along the riparian corridor. The existing riparian corridor and any enhancements to the corridor will help conserve Düzce’s biodiversity in the future.

Trophic rewilding of native extirpated predators on Bass Strait Islands could benefit woodland birds

Woodland birds are increasingly threatened by the impacts of environmental change. As the global population and economy grow, we continue to modify habitat for human use, reducing available nesting and foraging opportunities for birds. In addition, post-European occupation has led to the introduction of alien species, like cats (Felis catus), and the expansion of generalist species, like corvids, resulting in increased predation and competition for vulnerable bird species. To successfully preserve habitats, manage invasive species and conserve both endangered and common-but-declining bird species we need pre-emptive and innovative management strategies that can be implemented now.

Automated detection and classification of birdsong: An ensemble approach

Abstract The avian dawn chorus presents a challenging opportunity to test autonomous recording units (ARUs) and associated recogniser software in the types of complex acoustic environments frequently encountered in the natural world. To date, extracting information from acoustic surveys using readily-available signal recognition tools (‘recognisers’) for use in biodiversity surveys has met with limited success. Combining signal detection methods used by different recognisers could improve performance, but this approach remains untested. Here, we evaluate the ability of four commonly used and commercially- or freely-available individual recognisers to detect species, focusing on five woodland birds with widely-differing song-types. We combined the likelihood scores (of a vocalisation originating from a target species) assigned to detections made by the four recognisers to devise an ensemble approach to detecting and classifying birdsong. We then assessed the relative performance of individual recognisers and that of the ensemble models. The ensemble models out-performed the individual recognisers across all five song-types, whilst also minimising false positive error rates for all species tested. Moreover, during acoustically complex dawn choruses, with many species singing in parallel, our ensemble approach resulted in detection of 74% of singing events, on average, across the five song-types, compared to 59% when averaged across the recognisers in isolation; a marked improvement. We suggest that this ensemble approach, used with suitably trained individual recognisers, has the potential to finally open up the use of ARUs as a means of automatically detecting the occurrence of target species and identifying patterns in singing activity over time in challenging acoustic environments.