Wooden Roof Research Articles

Architectural and planning features of wooden orthodox Churches of Bukovyna using the example of the assumption church, 2 Novoushytska street, Chernivtsi

Wooden churches are an important part of Ukraine's cultural heritage. A significant portion of them has been identified, included in the State Register, and thus is under state protection. It should also be noted that the wooden architecture sites of western Ukraine were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2013 (nomination "Wooden Tserkvas of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine"). A characteristic feature of the Moldavian-Bukovinian type churches is a plan in the shape of an Orthodox cross. They also feature a high and steep wooden tent roof. The plan consists of three parts: the narthex, the nave, and the altar part. Above each part is a spherical vault in the shape of a half-sphere. The walls are made of wooden beams. The length of the wooden beam’s ranges from 3 to 6 meters. The entrance to the church is always located on the south facade. The prototype of all wooden churches of this type is considered to be the wooden church of the Putna Skete from the 14th century. The architectural monument of national significance, the Assumption Wooden Church, is an outstanding example of folk architecture. The church has retained its authenticity and has been located at its historic site since 1876. Its architectural and planning features lie in the preservation of the traditions of medieval folk architecture of wooden Orthodox churches in Bukovina, serving as a unique authentic example for researchers and restoration scientists The article provides an analysis of the architectural and planning features of the wooden Assumption of the Virgin Mary Church, one of the four wooden churches of national architectural significance located in the city of Chernivtsi. The impact of historical, cultural, and social factors on its architecture is analyzed. Methods and approaches to the preservation and restoration of wooden churches are considered, particularly the use of modern 3D scanning technologies for recording the state of the object and creating its phantom model. The article is illustrated with architectural drawings: site plan, floor plan, and elevations, and provides photographic documentation of facade and interior fragments.

Green smart multifunctional wooden roofs enabled by single-step hydrophobic laser-induced graphene fabrication

Global warming, contributing to the worsening climate crisis, has led to more frequent heavy snowfall and rainfall. This causes corrosion, mold, and structural damage to roofs, which shortens the roofs' lifespan and potentially creates safety hazards. Addressing these challenges, we propose an approach to develop a multifunctional roof crucial for proactive adaptation to extreme weather. In this article, we present hydrophobic laser-induced graphene (LIG) onto wood in a single-step process using femtosecond-laser-direct-writing (FsLDW) technology in ambient air without additional chemical treatment. This hydrophobic LIG, showcasing a high electrical conductivity of 10.0 Ω·sq⁻1 and a high contact angle of 148.8°, seamlessly integrates onto roofs, creating cost-effective, fast, eco-friendly, and smart roofing solutions. The hydrophobic surface of these LIG electrodes incorporates a heating function of LIG showcasing their versatility in providing waterproofing, drying wood, and facilitating de-icing functions. This eco-friendly invention, reliant solely on laser patterning on wood, not only extends roof lifespan but also relieves concerns about electronic waste and recycling, promising the integration of green, smart, and sustainable roofing solutions.

The Form of The Bajo Tribe’s House as an Adaptation Process Residential Environment

The Bajo tribe is a tribe that lives on the coast or islands. This is related to their livelihood, namely fishermen. Even though most already occupy land, fishermen still choose land close to the beach. The research aims to discover the essential things in their lives as a process of adaptation to the residential environment. The method used is naturalistic qualitative research by selecting several samples of residential houses on land and those that still choose land above water as cases to be analyzed. Even though there have been changes in occupying residential land, the Bajo tribe still has several adjustments regarding the placement of their homes, which are incredibly close to water or the coast. Residential houses on coastal land still have a back room facing the sea as the main room and are shaped like a house on stilts, while the front faces the road as a space for social interaction. Residential houses that occupy land and highways are the primary orientation and areas for social interaction. Although there is still a back room, it is not the main room. The shape of the building has changed both in structure and building materials. Almost all buildings on the land are permanent, consisting of several rooms, functioning as a bedroom, living room, etc.. In contrast, houses that occupy water land still use wood, bamboo, and woven sago leaf roofs and only have a onebedroom family room equipped with a back terrace.

A Numerical Study of Methods to Improve Moisture Safety of Ventilated Wooden Roofs

The hygrothermal performance of highly insulated, prefabricated wooden roof structures is likely to deteriorate due to the low heat flux to the ventilation cavity. This article evaluates the possibility to improve the moisture safety of such roofs in a Nordic climate by using different control methods for the ventilation rate of the roof and by using thermal insulation above the roof sheathing. The results support the use of adaptive roof ventilation as it decreases the probability of mould growth in the roof. The use of thermal insulation above roof sheathing decreases the probability of mould growth only slightly in a roof with elevated amount of built-in moisture.

A field investigation to evaluate the effects of prevailing wind and solar radiation on water-induced damage to the eaves of wooden fiber-board covered roofs

Due to various reasons, problematic spots where leakage may occur manifest on the surface of the eave and gutter components of roofs and on the joints between the components. Depending on their characteristics, wind and sunlight are climatic parameters that have a gradual impact in rendering various types of damage at these points. In this article, an observation-based investigation and evaluation was made of the wooden fiberboard-covered eaves of the roofs of a 28-building mass residential settlement in the district of Maslak, Istanbul, and constructed in 2007, to assess the effect of prevailing wind and solar radiation related various damages that had occurred over the 12-year life cycle of the residential complex. The impact ratios according to direction were assessed taking into consideration prevailing wind frequency and solar radiation amount. The results of the evaluation showed that the rupture and divergence defined as destructive damage in the veneer of the wooden fiberboard roof eaves changed in parallel with the forcefulness of the prevailing wind. In the directions where the effect of solar radiation was low, it was seen that due to delayed drying, the planks of wooden fiberboard displayed swelling, mossing, and cracked joints, and also damage in the form of deformations and ruptures.

Utilization of Waste as a Raw Material to Replace Manufactured Materials For Scavengers Houses at The Kawatuna TPA Location, Palu City

The biggest problem in housing in Indonesia is how to deal with the housing problems of low-income communities. Houses normally inhabited by such communities are often in unhealthy environments, as are houses built only with cheap materials or waste materials. One example of the lower layers of the community is the drillers who settled in the Kawatuna TPA of Palu City. The drillers built houses using local materials such as wood, ruby or zinc roofs, and tripleks. The condition of the houses built by the rollers is very worrying, especially the lack of ventilation, which causes the air exchange to not take place properly. And a lot of garbage gathered in front of the house could lead to disease. This research will conduct a study that can find solutions to the problems faced by rollers in the Kawatuna TPA area, one of which is through the use of garbage waste as a substitute material manufactured for the construction of rolling houses. In addition to that, a redesign of the shape of the houses will be done to get a proper shape from the health side. The data analysis used is a qualitative descriptive analysis. Qualitative data obtained through data collection techniques using observation results in the Kawatuna TPA. The results of this study are simple, healthy home designs that utilize waste materials. The design of rolling houses is divided according to their activities: large type, or type A, for fixed rollers, and small type, or type B, for non-stable rollers

Case Studies of Historical Wooden Roof Systems In 19th Century Istanbul and Repair Applications

19. yüzyılda İstanbul’da inşa edilen yapıların ahşap çatı sistemleri ait oldukları dönemin taşıyıcı sistem kurgusunu anlatan değerli mimari ve strüktürel ögelerdir. Bu döneme ait yapılardan zaman içinde yapılan restorasyon çalışmaları sonucunda çatıların yenilenmesi, bakımsızlık, yangın ve deprem gibi doğal afetler sonucunda özgün olarak günümüze ulaşan ahşap çatı sayısı son derece azdır. İstanbul’da yer alan İbrahim Paşa Muhsine Hatun Camii, Dolmabahçe Sarayı Süfera Salonu ve Arnavutköy Tevfikiye Camii ahşap çatıları geçilen açıklık, kullanılan malzeme, kesitler, taşıyıcı sistem kurgusu ve metal bağlantı elemanları ile özgün örneklerdir. Büyük kesitli ahşap elemanların çatı strüktüründe kullanılmasının taşıyıcı sistem elemanlarının korunmasında olumlu etki oluşturduğu ve bu elemanların kullanıldığı çatıların 100 yılı aşkın yaşlarına rağmen genel olarak iyi durumda olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte ahşap elemanlarda rötre çatlakları, zamana bağlı sehimler ve lokal malzeme bozulmaları, metal elemanlarda ise korozyon etkileri görülmektedir. Özellikle rötre etkisiyle zaman içinde çatlayan, kesiti azalan çatı elemanlarının, metal birleşim elemanlarında gevşemelere ve boşalmalara sebep olduğu görülmüştür. Çalışmanın bu döneme ait çatı sistemleri ile ilgili restorasyon çalışmalarının tanı, değerlendirme ve müdahale aşamalarında literatüre katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir.

Research on 18th-Century Building Structures in Terms of Static Scheme Changes.

The evaluation of the technical condition of historic buildings that have operated for several hundred years is a complicated issue. Even buildings that are in very poor condition must be checked and assessed in terms of their further repair, strengthening, or compliance with conditions that allow the facility to be safely operated. Most 18th-century buildings have not survived to this day retaining their original arrangements and structural elements. Renovations and repair work in the past were often carried out using materials of uncertain quality, with repair work of different qualities and without detailed analysis or methodology, based only on the experience of the former builders. In historic structures, the character of the work of individual structural elements has often changed due to significant material degradation, the poor quality of repair work, or the loss of adequate support. When load transfers change, internal forces are redistributed, and, as a result, the static scheme changes. This article presents an overview of identified defects affecting the change in static schemes in historical building structures built in the 18th century, using the example of a historic building with a large number of aforementioned defects. The process of assessing the technical condition of the facility is presented, in which non-destructive testing (NDT) methods were used. Detailed computational analyses were carried out for the wooden roof truss structure, which had partially lost its support.

Fire resistance of gypsum drywall partitions with polyurethane foam filling

AbstractGypsum drywall systems have gained their popularity, among other reasons, due to the excellent fire‐resistant properties. The use of different variants of the structures filled with insulating material (most often mineral wool) makes it possible to shape the parameters of fire resistance according to the requirements. The use of polyurethane foam for filling spaces inside drywall systems has become increasingly popular. This is especially applicable to the performance of thermal insulation of wooden roof slopes. The advantages of polyurethane foams over mineral wool include good adhesion to the substrate, lower specific weight, lower thermal conductivity and shorter time to make a tight filling layer. Its undoubted disadvantage is lower fire resistance. The paper presents a research on the fire resistance of gypsum drywall systems with self‐extinguishing polyurethane foam filling. The fire resistance time of the structures was measured in accordance with EN1363‐1 using a standard temperature‐time curve. The tests simulated a fire on the outside of a service shaft with a layer of polyurethane foam on its interior side, and a fire in an attic room with self‐extinguishing polyurethane foam thermal insulation between wooden rafters, and an interior enclosure made of two layers of gypsum board on a steel frame. The tests made it possible to determine the times of meeting the fire resistance criteria of partitions with polyurethane filling.

Derviş Bey Mosque in Dobrudja: A Possible Contribution to Sarı Saltık Research

This study is about the Derviş Bey Mosque in the south of the Dobrudja region. The mosque is located in the village of Umur Fakih, which was a district centre during the Ottoman period. Built with stone walls and a wooden roof, the mosque has a rectangular plan and does not have a minaret. The mosque, which was used until it was burned down in 1994, became dilapidated after that date. The architectural features of the mosque are discussed in comparison with the mosques in the neighbouring villages, and the restitution of the mosque is prepared by analysing the information from the field study, the publication of Zheko Popov and the photographs of Machiel Kiel. The opinions of İbrahim Tatarlı, Peter Mijatev and Nikolay Panayotov on the history of the building, its inscriptions and its owner are discussed and evaluated. The mosque has two inscriptions, one of which has not survived. Both inscriptions are repair inscriptions and the inscription belonging to the last repair has survived intact. There are also opinions stating that the date written in the inscription, which has not survived to the present day, was read incorrectly. The construction date written in the extant inscription is clearly Hijri 698 / Gregorian 1298-1299. This date is contemporary with the Turkmen settlement in Dobruja under the leadership of Sarı Saltık. The arrival of Turkmens in Dobruja, the construction and repair activities mentioned in Saltıknâme and Oğuznâme, Sarı Saltık's establishment of the Yılan Lodge in Kaligra Castle, recent archaeological finds and place names in the region, and the Seljuk past of Dobruja are evaluated, and the possible Seljuk past of Derviş Bey Mosque is examined. Keywords: Bulgaria, Dobrudja, Umur Fakih, Sarı Saltık, Derviş Bey, Mosque.

Effects of implanted wood components on environmental restorative quality of indoor informal learning spaces in college

The recovery needs of college students are growing. This study aimed to investigate the effects of implanted wood components in indoor informal learning spaces on restorative quality and the main mediators of the degree of wood configuration on restoration likelihood. Taking the library's leisure discussion area as the space carrier, students were recruited to experience virtual reality (VR) in ten kinds of spaces with different wood-component implantation schemes and conduct a restorative perceptual evaluation. First, the restorative perception of the space implanted with the wood structure and wood enclosure components was stronger than that of the space implanted only with wood enclosure components, especially when the wood rate exceeded 60%. The wood-component implantation scheme with the highest restorative score was as follows: the wood rate was in the range of 60–80%, with wood beams, wood columns, wood floor, wood roof, and wood walls being implanted simultaneously. Second, when the wood rate was below 80%, the restorative quality was substantially improved by increasing the wood rates and wood-application positions on the space surface. The restorative quality slowly decreased when the wood rate exceeded 80%. Finally, fascination, compatibility, naturalness, and preference mediated the effects of the degree of wood configuration on judgements of the restoration likelihood. Among them, the mediating effect generated through naturalness and preference was relatively large. Our research results provide wood-application guidance for the design and renewal of healthy indoor informal learning spaces in colleges, providing a reference for future research on the restoration of wood spaces.

Water Vapour Resistance of Ceiling Paints—Implications for the Use of Smart Vapour Barriers in Compact Wooden Roofs

Smart vapour barriers enable building envelopes to dry toward the interior side. This property can be used in compact wooden roofs to create more slender structures by placing the wooden load-bearing elements inside the insulation layer. There is, however, some concern that the ceiling assembly on the interior side may inhibit inward drying by trapping moisture between the vapour barrier and the ceiling boards. This article examined the water vapour resistance of gypsum boards painted with two, four, and six layers of typical ceiling paints. WUFI® 2D simulations were conducted to assess the risk of mould growth in compact wooden roofs with painted board ceilings. It was found that a painted ceiling board may exhibit an equivalent stagnant air layer thickness (sd value) between 0.074 m for two layers of the most vapour-open paint and 0.53 m for six layers of the least vapour-open. For an unpainted board, the sd value was measured to be 0.071 m. The difference was not found to make a substantial impact on the drying of a typical compact wooden roof. The application of paint may cause the assembly to dry at a slightly slower rate but was not found to present a notably higher risk of mould growth, even under unfavourable conditions.

Capacity-Building to Support Safer Housing through Appropriate Hurricane Strap Use

Amid rising global disaster risks, governmental and nongovernmental organizations have called for increased technical assistance to build capacity within communities to build safer housing. However, limited research has evaluated these approaches to building technical construction capacity. This study discusses the process of collaboratively designing an approach to build construction capacity for safer housing, evaluating this process through measures of builders’ self-efficacy and knowledge of mitigation measure efficacy. The capacity-building focuses particularly on the appropriate use of hurricane straps in wood roof construction in Puerto Rico, which was identified as an area where engineering recommendations did not align with many builders’ perceptions of safety. Three phases were used to design, implement, and assess this capacity-building approach. First, we interviewed staff in local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to identify propositions for building technical construction capacity in Puerto Rico. We then used these propositions as a framework to design the capacity-building approach. Finally, we piloted and evaluated this approach with existing trainers and community members who are building and repairing housing in Puerto Rico, interviewing them after implementation to analyze shifts in self-efficacy and knowledge of mitigation measure efficacy. The results reveal interviewees’ increased perceived self-efficacy and knowledge of mitigation measure efficacy following capacity-building, leading them to express increased willingness to mitigate hurricane risks to housing with appropriately installed hurricane straps. Overall, this study provides evidence that centering people’s perspectives is needed in technical construction capacity-building to influence builders’ self-efficacy and knowledge of mitigation measure efficacy and promote safer housing construction and suggests an approach that can be used to center these perspectives.

Interdisciplinary Analysis of Roman Floor Types in the Villa of Diomedes in the Archaeological Park of Pompeii

The present work presents and discusses an analysis of the floor types of the Villa of Diomedes (Pompeii archaeological park in the Campania region, Italy) from an architectural, archaeological, and structural point of view. In particular, the geometrical-structural parameters of different floor types and the rules used by ancient builders to design them are investigated by means of interdisciplinary research. The links between structural assumptions, archival sources, geometric survey, in situ visual inspections, and archaeological information make it possible to define the geometrical-structural parameters of eleven barrel vaults, three wooden floors, and three sloped wooden roofs (buried and collapsed during the Vesuvius eruption). A specific study of the barrel vaults is presented to investigate the relationships between the structural parameters of the main vaults. Furthermore, a comparison between the vaults’ dimensions obtained from surveys and those produced by formulations in the literature between the 15th and 20th centuries concerning masonry vault designs is presented and discussed. These analyses, carried out within the framework of the Villa of Diomedes interdisciplinary project, were very useful for interpreting the fabrication of the villa and making a 3D reconstruction model of how the villa probably looked in the fateful year of 79 A.D.

Evaluation of suitability for passive retrofit of wooden roof considering the specificity of historic buildings

Energy consumption and carbon emissions of buildings must be reduced according to the 2030 carbon neutrality policy. Many aspects of historic buildings should be considered in their improvement because of their historical value. Thus far, a new strategy to lower energy consumption and improve energy performance is required. This study intends to derive an optimal energy efficiency package to reduce the energy consumption of historic buildings. To accurately analyze energy efficiency, the condition of a historic building was evaluated through on-site inspections. The roof retrofit technology scenario was used to reduce energy loss in exposed rafters. The exterior of the building cannot be damaged as it has historical value. This retrofit technology was analyzed to determine the energy-saving effect and economic feasibility of the package to derive the optimal solution. Retrofit techniques were individually analyzed and packaged for the effective preservation of historic buildings. This study compared a total of six scenarios by combining three types of insulation materials, based on the location of internal insulation, to protect the exposed rafters. Considering energy-saving, economic feasibility, and damage weight, the scenario where polyurethane insulation was applied between battens was the best. However, the insulation of the roof must consider fire resistance as per the Building Act of the Republic of Korea. Considering flame-retardancy, the scenario in which glass wool was applied between batten was the best for the target building.

Moisture performance of various wooden shingles designs tested on the Golobar cable yarding

ABSTRACT Wood is a traditional roofing material in Europe and other parts of the world. In the seventeenth century, wooden roofing was generally used on more important buildings, but today it is mainly used on huts and houses in the Alpine regions. As wooden roofing is expensive, we investigated the possibility of extending the service life of the roofing through material selection and details. The roof of the Golobar cable yarding was covered with shingles made of spruce (Picea abies) and larch (Larix decidua). Part of the spruce roofing was thermally modified and/or treated with a water-wax emulsion. On the underside, we cut grooves in selected roof shingles to increase the specific surface of the wood and to accelerate drying after rainfall. In addition, wood moisture monitoring sensors were installed on the roof shingles. Based on three years of the wood moisture content measurements, it can be concluded that among shingles made of untreated spruce wood, the highest moisture content was recorded for shingles with a rectangular cross-section without additional grooves. The additional grooves positively affected the moisture performance of wood. Treating the wood with Silvacera wax had an even more pronounced effect on the moisture content of the shingles than the grooves.

The Action of Tornadoes on the Structural Elements of a Wooden Low-Rise Building Roof and Surrounding Objects—Review and Case Study

This article presents the phenomena of tornado models with statistical data on the number of tornadoes in various regions of the world. Classifications are presented of the intensity of weather phenomena caused by gusts of wind in terms of the amount of damage to buildings and nearby objects. The main aim of the article is to analyze a damaged single-family house and its surroundings after the tornado in Fairburn (2018, Georgia, USA), to estimate the peak wind speed that caused the damage, based on the ultimate and serviceable limit states, and to compare the obtained results with the tornado scales. The article draws attention to the various possibilities of damage and analyzes several places where potential damage could begin. The low-trength capacity of the joints was the direct cause of the roof structure failure, and this case is analyzed and discussed. FinallyFinally, the calculations performed are summarized and conclusions resulting from the visible trends are proposed. The novelty of this article lies in the following: the validation of the numerical model describing the response of the roof structure to the tornado; the estimation of the wind speed based on the degree of damage to the building based on the EF scale; and the analysis of the ultimate and serviceable limit states of the rafter to the horizontal beam joint.

Combining Architectural Conservation and Seismic Strengthening in the Wood-Based Retrofitting of a Monumental Timber Roof: The Case Study of St. Andrew’s Church in Ceto, Brescia, Italy

ABSTRACT This work presents the application of timber-based retrofitting techniques to a case-study stone masonry church featuring a wooden roof from 18th century. From the static point of view, the original roof structure presented a number of undersized structural elements, and its members were poorly or not connected among each other and to the masonry, making the church vulnerable to seismic loads as well. Thus, the roof was retrofitted with wood-based techniques, including an overlay of plywood panels, against seismic actions. These affordable, rapid, easily realizable interventions enabled both the conservation and seismic retrofitting of the roof, providing an adequate load-carrying capacity for static loads, and an effective diaphragm action against seismic loads. The conducted numerical analyses showed that the realized interventions greatly improve the seismic behaviour of the building. Besides, when the additional energy dissipation provided by the plywood panels overlay is taken into account in the numerical model, the church would even potentially be able to fully withstand the expected seismic action of the site.

A novel approach for modelling a historic timber roof

ABSTRACT Værnes church is one of the oldest mediaeval stone churches with the original wooden roof in Norway. The roof is made of several crossed layers of wooden boards connected with a large number of wooden dowels and has stood for centuries, but there are visible deformations in the lower parts of the structure. In this work, finite element models of the roof are presented in an attempt to characterise the behaviour of the wooden connections in the diaphragm. Two main scenarios are discussed: a first scenario that takes into consideration only the frame with line loads, considering the wooden boards merely as loads and a second scenario where the wooden boards are considered collaborating planks that influence the behaviour of the structure. As result of the work, it is possible to state that the wooden planks provide a stiffening effect, distributing the load on the gable walls. .

A preliminary study on production of roof tiles and paver blocks using wood and coal ash

The line-up of present analysis, to scrutinize regarding the probable utilization of wood ash along with coal ash for the manufacture of paver blocks and concrete tiles. The broad investigation is available from the antecedent experimental observations on the mentioned admixture for the manufacturer. The study provides necessary esoteric information as well as an experimental dossier for the use of coal ash mixed with wood ash to demonstrate its suitability as a sustainable building material. Samples worn were non-hazardous in nature and strenuously worn as admixture and their formations are ideally pertinent to make a tenacious compound combine material for paver blocks and tiles. Formerly done read-ups has been illustrated that, coal and wood ash-based paver blocks and roof tiles come up with an imperishable companion to the long-established paver blocks and concrete tiles also in addition it increases the competence of paver blocks and roof tiles. The admixture added benefits convincingly to cut down the environmental issues allied with disposition of these waste materials. In extension, this investigation focuses on admixtures for yielding sustainable construction materials.