Woodpile Research Articles

Charcoal kilns as a source of data on the past iron industry (an example from the River Czarna valley, Central Poland)

Abstract Charcoal was the primary fuel used for iron smelting and processing until the end of the 19th century. It was produced through burning piles of wood called charcoal kilns. The aim of the study was to identify and record traces of charcoal kilns related to past ironworks in the valley of the River Czarna (Małopolska Upland, Central Poland). Detailed analysis was conducted in areas adjacent to historical centres of iron processing in Maleniec, Kołoniec and Machory. A quantitative analysis of the traces of charcoal kilns in the topography was done based on DEM from airborne LiDAR. Soil profiles were analysed at the sites where traces of charcoal kilns were identified from DEM. Radiocarbon dating and palaeobotanical analyses were performed for selected charcoal from kiln remnants. In the study area we identified over 11,500 charcoal kilns. The radiocarbon age of these charcoals indicate that the charcoal kilns under study were used in the 15th, 18th and 19th century. Thus the results suggest that the iron industry in the studied area is c 100 years older than the historical written sources indicate. Palaeobotanical analyses show that coniferous trees were used for charcoal production. The large number of traces of charcoal kilns and their wide spatial distribution indicate that past charcoal production has had a significant impact on the environment and landscape change in the River Czarna valley and adjacent areas.

Modelamiento físico a escala de pilotes individuales, de cabeza libre, sometidos a carga lateral en suelos cohesivos

Este artículo presenta los resultados de la modelación a pequeña escala de pilotes de madera, de cabeza libre, sometidos a carga horizontal en suelos cohesivos, ensayados con el fin de comparar los resultados con modelos analíticos propuestos por varios autores. Se emplearon los métodos de la carga característica (CLM) y curvas P-Y, para la predicción de las deflexiones laterales en la cabeza de los pilotes, y el método propuesto por Broms para la estimación de resistencia por carga última lateral. Estas predicciones se compararon con los resultados del modelamiento físico, y se obtuvo bastante aproximación entre ellos.

Investigation on the effect of geometrical and geotechnical parameters on elongated offshore piles using fuzzy inference systems

Among numerous offshore structures used in oil extraction, jacket platforms are still the most favorable ones in shallow waters. In such structures, log piles are used to pin the substructure of the platform to the seabed. The pile’s geometrical and geotechnical properties are considered as the main parameters in designing these structures. In this study, ANSYS was used as the FE modeling software to study the geometrical and geotechnical properties of the offshore piles and their effects on supporting jacket platforms. For this purpose, the FE analysis has been done to provide the preliminary data for the fuzzy-logic post-process. The resulting data were implemented to create Fuzzy Inference System (FIS) classifications. The resultant data of the sensitivity analysis suggested that the orientation degree is the main factor in the pile’s geometrical behavior because piles which had the optimal operational degree of about 5° are more sustained. Finally, the results showed that the related fuzzified data supported the FE model and provided an insight for extended offshore pile designs.

Coastal erosion and shore protection: A brief historical analysis

Since the Neolithic, humans have gathered along coastal plains, where they had to face sea level rise and subsidence without the technology to oppose these processes. When sea level stabilized, approx. 6.000 yr. B.P., coastal colonization was allowed, but where mountain deforestation was carried out river sediment input increased tremendously: settlements were disconnected from the shore and harbour siltation occurred. Shore erosion was a limited process at the time and local solutions were adopted: clay dikes, wood piles, fascinates and rock revetments. Along the Mediterranean, in China and Japan the construction of more complex structures has been documented since the Middle Ages. Further human development, with river bed quarrying, wetland reclamation, dam construction and mountain re-afforestation, favoured a coastal erosion that nowadays threatens most world coasts. From the Venetian “Murazzi” to the recent 114-km-long concrete element defence at the Yellow river delta, shore protection structures evolved following the different needs (protect coastal communication routes, urban and industrial settlements, tourist resorts). Beach nourishment, previously performed with inland quarried materials, is now intensively carried out with marine aggregates. The vernacular solution, left to undeveloped countries, has been recently revaluated by “green engineering”. However, with Sea Level Rise, the debate of whether to defend, accommodate or retreat is open.

Monitoring the saproxylic longhorn beetle Morimus asper: investigating season, time of the day, dead wood characteristics and odour traps

Monitoring of rare or localized saproxylic species is essential for assessing species extinction risk and to investigate the ecological integrity of forests. Morimus asper (Sulzer, 1776) (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) is a longhorn beetle for which many aspects of its biology are still unknown and this hampers the development of a standard monitoring protocol. Here we investigated two different systems to attract M. asper in the Reserve Bosco della Fontana (Italy): freshly cut log piles (FCLPs) and pitfall traps baited with selected chemical compounds. The FCLPs were composed from logs of two tree species (Quercus robur L. or Carpinus betulus L.) utilizing wood of three diameter classes (small: 5–12 cm; medium: 13–30 cm; large: 31–60 cm). The occurrence and the detection of M. asper varied during the season and during the time of the day. M. asper was more common in the first half of the season and was more frequently detected at 20:00. Occupancy models did not show a clear influence of log diameter and tree species on species occupancy. In contrast, when analysing the abundance data, a significantly higher number of individuals was intercepted on FCLPs made from Q. robur and on those with a diameter above 13 cm. The baited pitfall traps did not catch any M. asper, even though some of the substances tested are known to attract other species belonging to the same subfamily (Lamiinae).

Preparation of opal photonic crystal infrared stealth materials

With the development of infrared detection technology, the survival of military target is now under serious threat. Therefore, new infrared stealth technologies and materials are now in an urgent demand. The photonic crystal (PhC) possesses regularly repeating structure which results in band-gap and diffraction satisfying Bragg's law of diffraction. The PhC presents unique optical properties and functionality. The PhC with band-gap located in visible band is used widely as biosensor, chemical sensor, optical filter, reflector, modulator, metasurface and solar cell. The PhC with band-gap located in infrared band can be used to control the propagations of the electromagnetic waves of infrared band, and could be used as a promising material in the infrared stealth technology. Photonic structure used to tune the infrared radiation usually has a one-dimensional layer-by-layer stack or three-dimensional wood pile structure. However, the poor flexibility, low strength, small area coverage, complicated fabrication process and high cost can prevent this new infrared stealth technology from being applied and developed. In this report, a simple and cost-effective method of preparing the opal PhC materials is proposed, and this infrared stealth material forbids electromagnetic waves of infrared band to propagate on account of band-gap.In this paper, opal PhCs materials with high quality are assembled from SiO2 colloidal microspheres with micrometer size by using optimized vertical deposition method. We calculate the relation between the diameter of SiO2 colloidal microsphere and the frequency of opal PhCs band-gap in theory and verified in experiment, which operates in the working band of infrared detector. The results show that the diameters of SiO2 colloidal microspheres should be 1.33-2.22 m and 3.56-5.33 m. A series of monodispersed micrometer SiO2 colloidal microspheres is prepared by the modified Stber method, and bigger microspheres are prepared by using the seeded polymerization method. Then, we choose the diameters of 1.5 m and 4.3 m SiO2 microspheres to prepare the opal PhCs materials. The PhCs materials assembled by 1.5 m SiO2 microspheres are prepared in alcohol under 60 ℃ or in acetone under 40 ℃; while the PhCs material assembled by 4.3 m SiO2 microspheres is prepared in alcohol/dibromomethane =3:1 under 60 ℃. Finally, the opal PhC materials with band-gap located in 2.8-3.5 m and 8.0-10.0 m are successfully prepared, and the widths of band-gap are 0.7 m and 1.9 m, respectively. These opal PhCs materials could change the infrared radiation characteristics of the target in infrared waveband, and meet the requirements of wide band-gap for infrared stealth materials.

Performance of copper treated utility poles and posts used in service for several years

Copper based wood preservatives are among the most important wood preservatives for heavy-duty applications. Wood treated with copper-based preservatives performs excellently if applied according to preservative specifications. If used improperly, premature failures can appear. In order to elucidate the properties of copper treated wood in use, utility poles and posts treated with copper-based preservatives were investigated. Poles were cut into smaller specimens, and copper and chromium penetration, retention, mechanical properties, extractive content, short-term water uptake and fungicidal properties were then determined. The results clearly showed that wood retains its properties if treated with sufficient amounts of copper-based wood preservatives. Insufficient amounts of preservatives applied result in premature failures of wood commodities. Regardless of the type of wood preservative used, the central part of spruce wood poles and piles is the weakest point, where the majority of the failures occurs.

Wood moisture content prediction using feature selection techniques and a kernel method

Wood is a renewable, abundant bio-energy and environment friendly resource. Woody biomass Moisture Content (MC) is a key parameter for controlling the biofuel product qualities and properties. In this paper, we are interested in predicting MC from data. The input impedance of half-wave dipole antenna when buried in the wood pile varies according to the permittivity of wood. Hence, the measurement of reflection coefficient, that gives information about the input impedance, depends directly on the MC of wood. The relationship between the reflection coefficient measurements and the MC is studied. Based upon this relationship, MC predictive models that use machine learning techniques and feature selection methods are proposed. Numerical experiments using real world data show the relevance of the proposed approach that requires a limited computational power. Therefore, a real-time implementation for industrial processes is feasible.

Validation of prediction models for estimating the moisture content of logging residues during storage

Increased use of forest biomass for energy and rising transportation costs are forcing biomass suppliers towards better moisture content management in the supply chain. Natural drying is used to decrease moisture content of energy wood. Drying is dependent on wood characteristics and weather conditions. Weather-dependent drying models for estimating the optimal storage time based on average moisture changes in fuel wood stacks stored outdoors have been developed for different stem wood and logging residues. Models are an easy option for estimating the moisture content of energy wood piles compared to sampling and measuring the moisture of samples. In this study, stand and roadside storage models for logging residues were validated against data from field studies and forest companies. Over 200 reference piles for the stand model, 23 piles for the roadside model and 10 piles for the combined model were studied. Results of the validation are promising. The difference between measured and modelled moisture was on average only 0.35%. The presented models can be implemented anywhere in Finland, because the Finnish Meteorological Institute has a weather observation service offering weather history data for every location in Finland. For international use, parameters need to be estimated on a case by case basis, but it should be possible to implement the approach also elsewhere.

Winter bird use of harvest residues in clearcuts and the implications of forest bioenergy harvest in the southeastern United States

Increased market viability of harvest residues gleaned for forest bioenergy feedstocks may intensify downed wood removal, particularly in intensively managed forests of the Southeast. Downed wood provides food and cover for many wildlife species, including birds, yet we are aware of no study that has examined winter bird response to experimentally manipulated, operational-scale woody biomass harvests. Further, little research has investigated avian use of downed wood following timber harvests. As such, our objectives were to: (1) evaluate effects of varying intensities of woody biomass harvest on the winter bird community and (2) document spatial associations between winter bird species and available habitat structure, including downed wood, in regenerating stands. In January and February of 2012–2014, we surveyed birds using a modified version of spot-mapping in six woody biomass removal treatments in North Carolina, USA (n=4 regenerating stands). Treatments included clearcut harvest followed by: (1) traditional woody biomass harvest with no biomass harvesting guidelines; (2) 15% retention with harvest residues dispersed; (3) 15% retention with harvest residues clustered; (4) 30% retention with harvest residues dispersed; (5) 30% retention with harvest residues clustered; and (6) no woody biomass harvest (i.e., reference). We tested for treatment-level effects on avian relative abundance (overall and individual species), species diversity and richness, and counts of winter birds detected near (∼1m from pile), in, or on branches of downed wood piles and calculated proportional avian habitat use of harvest residues and vegetation in regenerating stands. In 69 visits over three winters, we observed 3352 birds in treatments. In 2013, counts of birds detected in piles were greater in the no biomass harvest and 30% clustered treatments than the no biomass harvesting guidelines treatment. In 2012 and 2013 combined, mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) had greater relative abundance in the no biomass harvest treatment compared to the 15% dispersed treatment and was more often detected within 1m of downed wood piles than in vegetation. We counted more winter birds in and near adjacent forest edge than in treatment interiors each year. Overall, we detected minimal treatment effects on winter bird relative abundance and no effects on species diversity and richness. Relative abundance of winter birds increased over time as vegetative cover established in regenerating stands. Our results suggest woody biomass harvests in intensively managed pine forests had no effect on the winter bird community, but winter birds used harvest residues. Further, vegetation structure and composition, rather than availability of harvest residues, primarily influenced winter bird use of regenerating stands.

Using facilitation microsites as a restoration tool for conversion of degraded grasslands to Nothofagus forests in Southern Patagonia

In Southern Patagonia, introduction of exotic grasses after forest fires strongly restricts restoration of Nothofagus spp forests. The use of polycarbonate shelters to shield Nothofagus seedlings has been not enough for getting restoration success. Selection of natural facilitation microsites (i.e. logs, rocks, pioneer plants) for seedling outplanting may improve early performance of Nothofagus pumilio (Poepp. et. Endl.) Krasse (N. pumilio), by reducing the incidence of limiting factors such as soil water and light stress. In 2012, seedlings of N. pumilio shielded with polycarnonate shelters were planted close to log piles, nurse plants of native shrubs, and open areas to evaluate the effect of natural facilitation microsites on early performance of the species. After three growing seasons, soil measurements, seedlings survival, stem diameter and height of plants, electronic transport rate, stomatal conductance, and the chlorophyll index were evaluated to explore leaf photochemistry and any possible limitation to photosynthesis associated to microsite conditions. Seedling survival was significantly lower in open sites in comparison to the other microsite conditions. Seedling height was highest both under nurse plants and log piles microsites. Stomatal conductance was higher for seedlings in nurse plant microsites despite the fact that the soil water content was similar across all conditions. Soil penetration resistance and electron transport rate were higher, but chlorophyll index was lower, in open sites when compared to the other microsites. Our results show that the use of facilitation microsites such as pioneer nurse shrubs and logs for N. pumilio reforestation or restoration plans in degraded grassland areas in Southern Patagonia should be considered even when plants are protected with polyethylene shelters.

Accumulation of Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and Pb due to brick manufacturing in agricultutral soils and plants

Experiment was carried out to assess the concentration of Zn, Cu, Pb, Fe and Mn in agricultural soil and plant near selected brick kilns. Soils and plants samples were collected from four points such as 250, 500, 1000 and 1500 m away from brick kilns. Three metals were found at elevated levels in the soils near brick kilns such as, Pb (92.5 to 214 mg/kg), Zn (86 to 156 mg/kg) and Cu (24.7 to 46.9 mg/kg). It may be caused due to burning of poor quality coal and fire woods. The uptake of heavy metals in the nearest areas (250 m) of the brick kilns was significantly higher than the areas far from the brick production and their concentrations range from 7 to 543 mg/kg for Pb, 23 to 101 mg/kg for Zn, 10 to 41 mg/kg for Cu, 35 to 1309 mg/kg for Fe and 26 to 126 mg/kg for Mn. Results indicated that soils and plants accumulated maximum amount of micronutrients within 500 to 1000 m distance from brick kilns significantly decreased with distance. Iron and manganese were not polluting the soils near brick kilns but affecting the plants. Therefore, it can be suggested that no agricultural crops should be grown within 1000 m distance from a brick kiln.Dhaka Univ. J. Biol. Sci. 25(1): 75-81, 2016

3D printing of gels with living photosynthetic algae

Chlorella is a green, photosynthetic single-celled genus of algae. It can be 3D printed as a suspension in sodium alginate and gelled with calcium solutions. We have made “log pile” structures with channels between the gel lines to allow easy transport of nutrients and products. Under white light and immersed in solutions of bicarbonate and phosphate and urea “plant food” the algae multiply with the gel and produce oxygen at a rate comparable to that reported for suspensions of Chlorella. The system is stable for one or two weeks at least. In principle this can be extended to other plant tissues but there are concerns relating to bacterial and fungal infection and toxicity of the gel components. In addition a tougher gel is needed if this was to be converted to a practical bioreactor system.

An Early Bronze Age pile-dwelling settlement of discovered in Alepu lagoon (municipality of Sozopol, department of Burgas), Bulgaria

A new pile-dwelling settlement has been discovered during coring investigations on the shores of the Alepu lagoon (municipality of Sozopol, department of Burgas), on the western Black Sea coast, in Bulgaria. A multi-disciplinary methodology was applied to analyze the archaeological dataset, composed of wood piles, abundant charcoals and wood fragments, seeds, fish and shell remains, a few small bone fragments, some lithic fragments and potsherds. The piles were trimmed from oak trees and sunk into lagoonal muds, and currently lie 5.8 to 6.8 m below mean sea level. It highlights a wooden building at the edge of Alepu palaeo-lagoon. Charcoal remains confirm the use of oak tree as a dominant timber resource, consistent with pollen data for this period. Palaeo-botanic remains highlight gathering activities and the consumption of wild grapes, raspberries and figs. The herbaceous assemblage evokes deforestation activities. Exploitation of coastal resources is well attested by the great density of fish remains, dominated by anchovy (61%), highlighting possible preservation of fish products. Five radiocarbon dates constrain the age of the site to between 3350 and 3000 cal. BC.The Alepu piles-dwelling settlement sheds new light on the very beginning of the Early Bronze Age in coastal Bulgaria. Adding fresh information to the local archaeological record, it completes the well-discussed issue of the protohistoric submerged settlements, revealing in turn the economic strategies of the societies at the end of the transitional period. Considerations about geomorphological settings of these sites underline the evolution of the regional settlement patterns, as well as the importance of lagoonal locations. Lagoon contexts not only offer abundant fish resources, as attested by our data from Alepu, but also good conditions for anchorage. These sites were later drowned, preserved and buried following the relative rise of the Black Sea level.

Assessment of macro and micro nutrients around brick kilns agricultural environment

Brick kiln is well known as one of the main sources of air pollution; however, the pollutants produced from it do not remain in the air, they ultimately fall down to the soil and pollute the surroundings, therefore, this study was carried out to assess the status of macro (N, P, K and S) and micro nutrients (Fe, Mn and Zn, Cu) in the agricultural environment near the brick kilns of Young Brahmaputra and Jamuna Floodplain soils. Composite soil and plant samples were collected from four distances such as 250m, 500m, 1000m, and 1500m in three different sites. Sulphur (2352–3378mgkg−1), Zn (86–156mgkg−1) and Cu (24.7–46.9mgkg−1) are found in the elevated levels near brick kiln soils that is released due to burning of poor quality coal and fire woods. The alarming news is that plant uptake of S and micro nutrients in the nearest areas of the brick kilns are significantly higher than the areas far from the brick production and their concentration ranges from 23mgkg−1 to 101mgkg−1 for Zn, 10–41mgkg−1 for Cu, 35–1309mgkg−1 for Fe, 26–126mgkg−1 for Mn and 2590–mgkg−1 for S. Data indicates both soil and plant received maximum amount of micronutrients and S concentrations within 500–1000m distances from brick kilns. Iron and Mn concentrations vary within a permissible limit but the plant uptake is high. Nitrogen concentrations is increasing with the distance from the brick kilns in both soils and plants but no definite pattern of P and K accumulation was found. Research suggested avoiding agricultural practice nearby brick kiln soils due to micronutrient contamination in order to preserve adjoined agricultural environment.

New markers of natural and anthropogenic chemical alteration of archaeological lignin revealed by in situ pyrolysis/silylation-gas chromatography⿿mass spectrometry

Analytical pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry with in situ silylation using hexamethyldisilazane (Py(HMDS)-GC/MS) was used to investigate the chemical alteration patterns of a set of archaeological waterlogged oak and silver fir woods. The samples were collected from five piles removed from stilt houses found in a Neolithic village (Bracciano lake, Rome, Italy) and from various parts of the roof of a Roman house (Herculaneum, Italy).We discuss on how the molecular information provided by Py(HMDS)-GC/MS revealed the causes and effects of natural and anthropogenic alteration and degradation of lignin, and how the adoption of silylation reactions lead to the detection of very informative pyrolysis products. Very particular pyrolytic patterns were obtained for the archaeological samples investigated, which were mainly characterised by the presence of oxidised compounds such as vanillin, acetovanillone, vanillic acid, syringaldehyde, acetosyringone, and syringic acid.We also report the first ever identification of the methyl esters of vanillic and syringic acids in their silylated form using this method. The results are consistent with heating processes undergone by archaeological wood due to natural or anthropogenic causes: the wooden roof from Herculaneum was naturally exposed to high temperatures during the eruption of Vesuvius, and the wood piles may have been artificially heated by people in the Neolithic Age to enhance the waterproof properties of wood.Due to the importance of identifying lignin pyrolysis products, the identification and mass spectra of sixty lignin pyrolysis products in their silylated form are also presented.

Reducing damage caused by oak wilt disease transmitted by the ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus (Coleoptera: Platypodidae) using oak log pile traps

The damage resulting from oak wilt disease, caused by a pathogenic fungus transmitted by the ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus Murayama (Coleoptera: Platypodidae), was comparatively assessed using oak log pile traps. Oak wilt disease has caused extensive damage to native oak species and forests in Japan. The ambrosia beetle P. quercivorus has been legally declared a pest by the Forest Pest Control Act. In forests infested by the ambrosia beetle, development of effective control methods to reduce or eliminate the damage is needed. Field investigations were conducted to confirm the effectiveness of oak log pile traps on the control of oak wilt disease. As a result, the number of trees exhibiting defoliation caused by oak wilt disease was significantly different between an area with the oak log pile traps and a trap-free area. Thus, oak log pile traps have possibilities for reducing oak wilt disease as well as controlling disease damage in spatial spread areas.

Observation of Static Load of L-Shaped Retaining Wall Constructed on Short Wooden Pile Using Fiber Optic Geogrid BOTDR Method

The scope of the study was aimed to observe the long-term static load of the L-shaped retaining walls incorporated with fiber optic geogrid using Brillouin optical time-domain reflectometry method at the interval of 55 mm installed with short wooden pile of small diameter. The application of wooden pile in soft ground using the bottom panel system structure of the foundation has been discussed based on the published construction manual referred to the waterway box culvert and pre-cast L-shaped retaining walls to reduce the load on the short wooden pile head using geogrid. The actual vehicle dump truck was used to measure loads passing through the retaining wall after 160 days of construction. The results showed that the load acting on the pile increases with time and approached the allowable bearing capacity of 28.9 kN/pile group. The straining immediate after the construction was detected to be decreased after four months due to stress relaxation on the geogrid. The strain under static live load under a rear wheel of the dump truck to a virtual rear portion of L-shaped retaining wall and at the central portion of the bottom panel width of L-shaped retaining wall yielded the tensile straining in the periphery. It is found that the straining on geogrid is relatively small to be able for bearing the load of the dump truck to some extent.

Interdisciplinary Interprofessionalism at Mid-Century: Ancel Keys, Human Biology, and the Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene, 1940-1950.

In 1944, physiologist Ancel Keys and his University of Minnesota colleague, psychologist Josef Brozek published an article in Science titled General Aspects of Interdisciplinary Research in Experimental Human Biology.1 They wrote paper in part to promote synthetic and interdisciplinary style of research on health and performance conducted at Keys's Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene (LPH). A term coined by biologist Raymond Pearl during interwar period, human was a holistic science that encompassed research in physical anthropology, genetics, clinical medicine, physiology, biochemistry, and organismal and population biology, as researchers in field examined dynamic, ecological relationship between i ndividuals or populations and their adaptation to environmental stress.2 Keys embraced this interdisciplinary approach during his fellowship years (1933-36) at Harvard Fatigue Lab. There, physician and philosopher L.J. Henderson and psychologist Elton Mayo had extended science of biology to problems of industry and athletics in an effort to optimize performance.3 Keys pursued a similar goal in 1935, when he led Harvardbased International High Altitude Expedition to Chile. Over four months, an interdisciplinary scientific team measured their physiological and psychological acclimatization to great heights-a topic of interest to aviation and mining industries in Andes.4The Science essay also offered Keys and Brozek a pulpit to urge wholesale restructuring of undergraduate and graduate study in sciences. They wrote at a time when universities across nation were grappling with place of sciences in undergraduate general education, and when applied problems of World War II had brought investigators from different disciplines together, demonstrating power of collaborative scientific research-most notably in Manhattan Project but also in projects such as Keys's development of first compact, calorie-dense, lightweight meal for soldiers: K ration. Ruefully observing that the young scientist has a greater chance of advancement if he saws wood on his own wood pile . . . [and] does not participate in interdepartmental, collaborative projects, Keys and Brozek critiqued specialization that characterized graduate science education.5 Asserting that problems in biology (and many fields) demanded analysis and manipulation of a sector of reality, and . . . this reality is always multifarious,6 they offered example of LPH as a sort of interdisciplinary, interprofessional Camelot. There each scientist was familiar with language, problems, and research methods of other and biochemists and psychologists, together with technical assistants, worked as a team under coordinating effort of a directorcolleague. Under these circumstances, Keys and Brozek added, participants should engage one another as both active listeners and active talkers to attain an between dominance and submission.7Whether or not members of Ancel Keys's laboratory staff achieved such equilibrium is a subject for debate. Some recall Keys as a research director of old-school variety: a brilliant individual whose authority was as unquestioned as his scientific ability. Yet, there can be no doubt that he tried to promote social and intellectual equilibrium or that his laboratory boasted an extensive record of productive interprofessional collaborations among biochemists (including his wife Margaret Haney Keys), psychologists such as Brozek, and myriad physiologists, physicians, statisticians, dieticians, and nurses at LPH.8 The last two groups were employed as technicians, a term that masks their centrality to Keys's interdisciplinary scientific enterprise. This essay explores interdisciplinary science and interprofessional relations at LPH, with particular emphasis on two nutritional projects: K ration and Minnesota Starvation Experiment (MSE). …

Analysis of Groyne Placement on Minimising River Bank Erosion

Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. Impacts of river bank erosion are multifarious: social, economic, health, education and sometimes political. Groynes are structures constructed in rivers to protect the shore. Groynes are generally made of wood, concrete, or rock piles etc. In the present study coir geotextiles in the form of cocologs are used as the groynes to make the groyne more ecofriendly. Study mainly concentrates on analysing the effects of placing groynes at different angles from 450 to 1350 and to find the most effective arrangement for minimising the erosion. Results indicate that cocolog-groynes are effective in minimizing the erosion and protecting the bank. Maximum protection is observed for groyne angle of 1350.