Wood Supply Chain Research Articles

Greenhouse gas and energy based life cycle analysis of products from the Irish wood processing industry

The timber industry in Ireland is an important producer of wood products for export and indigenous use, and supplies significant volumes of sawmill co-products as biomass for energy generation. This research expands existing knowledge on the environmental impacts of wood supply chains in Ireland by widening the analysis to incorporate the wood processing stage. The study determines and analyses energy and material inputs in the production of several timber products; sawnwood, wood chip, wood-based panel (WBP) boards and wood pellets, with an analysis of the resulting greenhouse gas emissions. Forestry operations and transportation make an important contribution to overall emissions. Electricity usage is responsible for the majority of emissions in sawmilling. Integration of combined heat and power (CHP) systems with sawmilling and pellet manufacture reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The penetration of renewables in the Irish national grid mix is forecast to increase by 2020 in line with EU renewable energy targets. Analysis shows that the forecast fall in the carbon intensity of the grid will have a positive effect on the reduction of GHG emissions from the wood processing supply chains. Wood energy products compare favourably with other sources of biomass energy and with fossil fuels.

The prediction of single-tree biomass, logging recoveries and quality attributes with laser scanning techniques

The precise knowledge of forest structural attributes, such as biomass, logging recoveries and quality of the available timber, play an essential role in decision-making, forest management procedure planning and in wood supply chain optimization. Remote sensing-aided mapping applications are used intensively to acquire required forest resource information. Laser scanning (LS) is one of the most promising remote sensing techniques, which can be used to estimate forest attributes at all levels, from single trees to global applications. The main objectives of the present thesis were to develop LS-based methodologies for mapping and measuring single trees. More specifically, new high-density LS-based models and methodologies were developed for the prediction of aboveground biomass (AGB), logging recovery, stem curve and external tree quality estimation. Multisource remote sensing methodologies were additionally introduced for the detailed next generation forest-inventory process. Substudies I and II concentrated on developing LS-based biomass models. Total AGB was estimated with the relative root mean squared errors (RMSE%) of 12.9% and 11.9% for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H.Karst.), respectively using terrestrial LS (TLS) -derived predictors in multiple regression modelling. TLS-based AGB models significantly improved the estimation accuracy of AGB components compared to state-of-the-art allometric biomass models. Airborne LS (ALS) resulted in slightly higher RMSE% values of 26.3% and 36.8% for Scots pine and Norway spruce compared to results obtained with TLS. The goal of substudies III and IV was to predict timber assortment and tree quality information using high-density LS data. Sawlog volumes were estimated with RMSE% of 17.5% and 16.8% with TLS and a combination of TLS and ALS, respectively. Tree quality is an important factor for accurate and successful timber assortment estimation. The use of TLS data showed high potential for tree quality assessment. Results in IV showed that trees could be successfully classified in different quality classes based on TLS-measured attributes with accuracies between 76.4% and 83.6% depending on the amount of quality classes. Substudies V and VI presented new automatic processing tools for TLS data and a multisource approach for the more detailed prediction of diameter distribution. Automatic processing of TLS data was demonstrated to be effective and accurate and could be utilized to make future TLS measurements more efficient. Accuracies of ~1 cm were achieved using the automatic stem curve procedure. The multisource single-tree inventory approach combined accurate treemaps produced automatically from the TLS data, and ALS individual tree detection technique for predicting forest preharvest information. Results from diverse forest conditions were promising, resulting in diameter prediction accuracies between 1.4 cm and 4.7 cm depending on tree density and main tree species. Each substudy (I–VI) presented new methods and results for single-tree AGB modelling, external tree quality classification, automatic stem reconstruction and multisource approaches.

Accuracy in estimation of timber assortments and stem distribution – A comparison of airborne and terrestrial laser scanning techniques

Detailed information about timber assortments and diameter distributions is required in forest management. Forest owners can make better decisions concerning the timing of timber sales and forest companies can utilize more detailed information to optimize their wood supply chain from forest to factory. The objective here was to compare the accuracies of high-density laser scanning techniques for the estimation of tree-level diameter distribution and timber assortments. We also introduce a method that utilizes a combination of airborne and terrestrial laser scanning in timber assortment estimation. The study was conducted in Evo, Finland. Harvester measurements were used as a reference for 144 trees within a single clear-cut stand. The results showed that accurate tree-level timber assortments and diameter distributions can be obtained, using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) or a combination of TLS and airborne laser scanning (ALS). Saw log volumes were estimated with higher accuracy than pulpwood volumes. The saw log volumes were estimated with relative root-mean-squared errors of 17.5% and 16.8% with TLS and a combination of TLS and ALS, respectively. The respective accuracies for pulpwood were 60.1% and 59.3%. The differences in the bucking method used also caused some large errors. In addition, tree quality factors highly affected the bucking accuracy, especially with pulpwood volume.

Estimation of the Timber Quality of Scots Pine with Terrestrial Laser Scanning

Preharvest information on the quality of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) timber is required by the forest industry in Nordic countries, due to the strong association between the technical quality and product recovery of this species in particular. The objective of this study was to assess the accuracy of estimating external quality attributes and classifying the quality of mature Scots pine trees by terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). The tree quality was estimated using a random forest approach, based on both field and TLS measurements of stem diameters, tree height and branch heights. The relative root mean squared errors of the TLS measurements for tree height, diameter, diameter at 6 m and the lowest living and dead branch height were 7.1%, 5.9%, 8.9%, 9.6% and 42.9%, respectively. The highest errors of the branch heights were caused by the shadowing effect in the point cloud data. The quality classes were estimated accurately, based on both (field and TLS measured) tree attributes. Trees were classified with 95.0% and 83.6% accuracy into three operationally-important quality classes and with 87.1% and 76.4% accuracy into five classes using, field or TLS measurements, respectively. The obtained quality classification results were promising. The enhanced tree quality information could have a significant effect on planning forest management procedures, wood supply chains and optimizing the flow of raw materials. To fully integrate tree quality measurements in operational forestry, the methods used should be fully automated.

RETRACTED: Biomass supply chain optimisation for Organosolv-based biorefineries

This work aims at providing a Mixed Integer Linear Programming modelling framework to help define planning strategies for the development of sustainable biorefineries. The up-scaling of an Organosolv biorefinery was addressed via optimisation of the whole system economics. Three real world case studies were addressed to show the high-level flexibility and wide applicability of the tool to model different biomass typologies (i.e. forest fellings, cereal residues and energy crops) and supply strategies. Model outcomes have revealed how supply chain optimisation techniques could help shed light on the development of sustainable biorefineries. Feedstock quality, quantity, temporal and geographical availability are crucial to determine biorefinery location and the cost-efficient way to supply the feedstock to the plant. Storage costs are relevant for biorefineries based on cereal stubble, while wood supply chains present dominant pretreatment operations costs.

Clear wood content in standing trees predicted from branch scar measurements with terrestrial LiDAR and verified with X-ray computed tomography

Knowledge about the wood quality of standing trees is crucial in that it serves as an excellent means for nearly all stages of the wood-supply chain. Better information about internal wood characteristics can be derived from the outside appearance by establishing a correlation between the bark characteristics of a stem and its internal quality. This paper presents an approach where the quality determination of standing trees using a terrestrial light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system is combined with the information about internal quality of logs using X-ray computed tomography (CT). Results show a high accuracy for branch scar measurements with terrestrial LiDAR and knot measurement with CT. A strong correlation between scar seal quotient and the amount of clear wood could be confirmed using European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) as an example. Quality grading of virtually segmented logs using terrestrial LiDAR and CT showed moderate correlation; 62.5% of the segments were allocated to the same grade by both approaches. In conclusion, terrestrial LiDAR in forest inventory could be used as an instrument to predict inner wood quality in greater detail by gathering data on the outer appearance and branch scars of standing trees. This additional knowledge has the potential to improve forest planning, bucking instructions, and a roundwood allocation that meets industry demand.

Opportunities for cost mitigation and efficiency improvements through rationalization of small-diameter energy wood supply chains

The production of energy wood from small-diameter (DBH < 9 cm) forests in Finland through separate energy wood and integrated energy wood and pulpwood production often face cost pressures that inhibit economic viability of many operations. Systemic factors, such as small stem sizes, limited removals, and high density of young forest stands limit the efficiency of many operations resulting in low productivity and high operating costs, particularly within cutting operations. Within the study, means to increase efficiency and mitigate costs of small-diameter energy wood and integrated energy wood and pulpwood operations by identifying optimal methods, technologies, and policy that may be applied were identified. Studies of integrated and delimbed stemwood cutting methods including the use of multi-tree handling and combined timber assortments in forest stands with stem size (DBH) of removals varying between 5-17 cm were investigated and compared against separate pulpwood production. Findings suggest that the methods provide increases in productivity and decreases in costs, particularly in < 11 cm DBH conditions. Crane scale measuring was investigated as a technical solution in timber logistics to be applied in energy wood and industrial roundwood procurement. The measuring method, used as a basis of payment, was found to provide a reliable, accurate, and cost effective method when compared with a manual timber pile measurement system. Policies, in the form of financial incentives were investigated to determine the effects of applicable subsidies on the profitability of energy wood production based on stem size of removal, finding possibilities for profitable operations with reduction in subsidies, however, with stem sizes (DBH) of removal 7 cm incentives played an important role in increasing profitability. Cost reductions were identified through: The utilization of integrated and delimbed stemwood harvesting methods with multi-tree handling, decreasing harvesting costs by 0.152.4% dependent on stem size (DBH) of removal between 7-17 cm when compared to a traditional pulpwood harvesting method; Combining timber assortments providing harvesting cost reductions between 1.5-8.0% between 5-17 cm; Crane scale measurement use provided increased accuracy and a 18.2-45.5% reduction in costs when compared to a manual timber pile measurement system when dependent on estimated working volumes between 20,000-30,000 m; Financial incentives under the PETU system were applied increasing profit margins of integrated supply chain operations by 3.8-19.9% dependent on stem size of removal, particularly with stem size of removals between 5-7 cm. Through rationalization of supply chains, harvesting methods, technologies, and policy which exhibit the ability to reduce costs and should be utilized throughout the whole supply chain where implementation is possible.

Estimation of potential production of energy wood in the Leningrad region of Russia

The forests of the Russian Federation are the world’s largest reserve of wood for different purposes. In order to satisfy the growing demand for wood, forestry in Russia has to be intensified. This study analysed energy wood resources in the Leningrad region of Russia, in the context of intensification of forestry and technical, socio-economic and climatic issues. The assessment was done using the resource-focused approach and statistical, spatial and cost-comparative analyses. Three scenarios of energy wood availability, based on different intensities of forestry, were analysed at regional and district levels to compare the efficiency of wood supply chains, to estimate employment effects of forest chip production and to analyse cost competitiveness of forest chips. The impact of climate change on the technical accessibility of forests and harvestable volumes of industrial and energy wood was analysed. In the scenario Allowable, the availability of energy wood increased from 4.1 to 6.3 Mm 3 (+54%) compared with the scenario Recent. In the scenario Potential, the total volume of available energy wood would be 9.2 Mm 3 (+124% compared with scenario Recent). Comparable results were obtained at the district level, +50% and +83%, respectively. The average productivity of logging operations in the Russian companies investigated was 20% to 30% lower than that in Finland. The employment effect from the utilisation of energy wood depended on the availability scenarios and the type of chipper used. The number of employment positions could be increased by 84% in the scenario Potential compared with the scenario Recent. Forest chips were 2–3 times more expensive than natural gas and coal but cheaper than heavy oil. Each decade, the duration of the winter felling season will become 3-4 days shorter. By 2015, the potential losses of a typical large logging company due to the technical inability of entering forests could be about 360 000 euro. The study area has large available volumes of energy wood but their utilisation is limited by technical and economic factors. The methodology proposed in this study could help logging companies and local authorities predict economic and social effects from the utilisation of energy wood.

Analysing the effect of five operational factors on forest residue supply chain costs: A case study in Western Australia

In Australia the use of forest biomass has been developing in recent years and initial efforts are built on adopting and trialling imported European technology. Using a linear programming-based tool, BIOPLAN, this study investigated the impact of five operational factors: energy demand, moisture mass fraction, interest rate, transport distance, and truck payload on total forest residues supply chain cost in Western Australia. The supply chain consisted four phases: extraction of residues from the clear felled area to roadside by forwarders, storage at roadside, chipping of materials by mobile chippers, and transport of chips to an energy plant. For an average monthly energy demand of 5 GWh, the minimum wood supply chain cost was about 29.4 $ t−1, which is lower than the maximum target supply cost of 30–40 $ t−1, reported by many industry stakeholders as the breakeven point for economically viable bioenergy production in Australia. The suggested volume available for chipping in the second year was larger than in the first year indicating that the optimisation model proposed storing more materials in the first year to be chipped in the second year. The sensitivity analysis showed no strong correlation between energy demand and supply chain cost per m3. For higher interest rates, the total storage cost increased which resulted in larger operational cost per m3. Longer transport distances and lower truck payloads resulted in higher transport cost per unit of delivered chips. In addition, the highest supply chain costs occurred when moisture mass fraction ranged between 20% and 30%.

An Integrated Approach for the Optimization of the Sustainable performance: a Wood Supply Chain

This paper proposes an integrated approach that embeds the economic, environmental and social performances in the planning activities of the supply chain (SC). The approach is applied on a realistic case study inspired by the lumber industry where divergent manufacturing processes and various cutting patterns are involved. We first identify the sustainability objectives to be measured. Then, we link these objectives to the SC decision planning. Next, we define performance measures to assess the achievement of each objective. This triptych-based approach is transposed to a multi-objective mathematical programming (MOP) that serves as a performance optimizing and assessing tool. The MOP models a tactical planning problem where the SC is represented as a network of activities. The problem is resolved using the weighted sum method.

Moisture content, weight loss and potential of energy wood in South and Central Ostrobothnia regions in western Finland

The aim of this thesis was to improve the quality of energy wood and therefore increase the potential of forest energy. The role of moisture content in energy wood was crucial in this study and the data concerning it was collected at various stages in the operational energy wood supply chain. About half of the mass of a freshly-felled tree consists of water. From the point of view of energy generation this water is unwelcome. There are two main ways to dry energy wood; these are artificial drying and drying naturally. The Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) stump wood dries fairly quickly in favourable natural conditions. The average moisture content (wet basis) of a stump was about 31 % one month after stump harvesting. Spruce stump wood also retains its dryness well in storage all year round; providing the stumps are dried well one time after harvesting. Small-sized whole trees did not dry well at roadside storage sites under natural conditions. About one year after harvesting the moisture content of a small-sized whole tree was still about 43 %. However, during storing a remarkable weight loss of 37 % was detected between the forest and the heating plant. The most effective and the fastest drying method found in this study was the continuous compression drying method. The lowest moisture content of 30 % was achieved for Downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) by continuous pressing using 38 MPa and with a pressing time of 30 seconds. Correspondingly, the moisture content of softwood was about 35 % under the same pressing conditions. The energy consumption for compression drying is very low compared to the energy required to vaporise water in thermal drying. The techno-economic forest energy potential of the study area was 1.6 TWh/y and it could be even greater (2.7 TWh/y) if the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stumps were also fully utilised for energy recovery. The forest energy potential calculations were made using the heating value of fresh wood and therefore the real potential will be greater when using dried energy wood. For absolutely dry wood the potential was about 1.9 TWh/y. The properties of energy wood vary widely depending on its assortment, storage conditions, as well as the weather conditions and the origin of the energy wood. However, a better understanding of energy wood properties will increase forest energy’s potential and the use of renewable energy and thus help mitigate climate change globally.

The Effects of Local Biomass Availability and Possibilities for Truck and Train Transportation on the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of a Small-Diameter Energy Wood Supply Chain

The work presents a method of assessing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of forest-based biomass supply chains on a site-specific level. The method includes biomass availability and transportation network assessments based on geographical information system data, and GHG emission assessment based on life-cycle assessment methods. The GHG assessment takes into account distances traveled on the various types of road by trucks. Two case studies are presented, with 720 TJ year−1 of small-diameter energy wood chips delivered to two locations in Finland: Mikkeli and Rovaniemi. In the case studies, possibilities for train transportation from distant supply areas were included. Regarding railway transportation, it was assumed that the end-points have direct railway connections. The case study results show that if direct truck transportation around the plants were supplemented with one trainload per week (230 TJ year−1) from suitably located railway loading points, GHG emission savings of 8 % could be achieved in both cases. The most GHG-efficient supply chains around the railway loading points were found to be based on transportation of loose trees to the loading spots. Because of better biomass availability and better roads, the emissions of the least GHG-emitting supply chain were 9 % lower in Mikkeli’s case than for Rovaniemi. The results indicate that site-specific biomass availability and transportation possibilities should be taken into account in assessment of the GHG emissions of a particular biomass supply chain. Also, if suitable conditions exist, railway transportation offers potential for reduced supply-chain GHG emissions.

DETERMINATION OF THE FOREST ROAD NETWORK INFLUENCE ON THE SUPPLY CHAIN FOR FIREWOOD PRODUCTION BY DISCRETE EVENT SIMULATION

In this study a Discrete-event simulation (D-es) has been developed to analyze the wood supply chain for firewood production in a mountain area in North-eastern Italy. The D-es is applied in the modeling of extraction (Full Tree System), processing of roundwood into wood assortments (cross-cut and sorting), offroad and on-road transport. In order to estimate the productivity functions and parameters, field studies were conducted to gather data about the different operations linked in the model. Also a GIS network analysis was developed to integrate the spatial information onthe covered distance to the D-es model for each of the supposed Scenarios. The results indicats that an increment of 5 m ha&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; of the forest road network could significantly increase the productivity of the wood supply chain up to 2%.

DETERMINATION OF THE FOREST ROAD NETWORK INFLUENCE ON THE SUPPLY CHAIN FOR FIREWOOD PRODUCTION BY DISCRETE EVENT SIMULATION

In this study a Discrete-event simulation (D-es) has been developed to analyze the wood supply chain for firewood production in a mountain area in North-eastern Italy. The D-es is applied in the modeling of extraction (Full Tree System), processing of roundwood into wood assortments (cross-cut and sorting), offroad and on-road transport. In order to estimate the productivity functions and parameters, field studies were conducted to gather data about the different operations linked in the model. Also a GIS network analysis was developed to integrate the spatial information onthe covered distance to the D-es model for each of the supposed Scenarios. The results indicats that an increment of 5 m ha-1 of the forest road network could significantly increase the productivity of the wood supply chain up to 2%.

A comparison of two low grade heat recovery options

Low grade heat (LGH) recovery is one way of increasing industrial energy efficiency and reducing associated greenhouse gas emissions. The organic Rankine cycle (ORC) and condensing boiler are two options that can be used to recover low grade heat (<250 °C). This paper assesses the lifecycle greenhouse gas reduction impacts and discounted payback periods associated with both technologies. Generation of electricity through the operation of the ORC saves approximately 11 kt of CO2 annually, but the high carbon intensity of the coking process means this has a negligible influence (<1%) on the overall process lifecycle impacts. However, if the electricity generated offsets the external purchasing of electricity this results in favourable economic payback periods of between 3 and 6 years. The operation of a condensing boiler within a woodchip boiler reduces the fuel required to achieve an increased thermal output. The thermal efficiency gains reduce the lifecycle impacts by between 11 and 21%, and reflect payback periods as low as 1.5–2 years, depending on the condenser type and wood supply chain. The two case studies are used to highlight the difficulty in identifying LGH recovery solutions that satisfy multiple environmental, economic and wider objectives.

Lumber recovery and value of dead and sound black spruce trees grown in the North Shore region of Québec

Context To increase the wood supply to its industry, the government of Quebec has allocated dead and sound wood (recently dead merchantable stems, DSW) to the wood supply chain in addition to the annual allowable cut of living trees. However, DSW is often criticized by sawmillers for its perceived poor quality and lower value.

Wood energy fuel cycle optimization in beech and spruce forests

A novel synergistic approach to reducing emissions from residential wood combustion (RWC) is presented. Wood energy fuel cycle optimization (FCO) aims to provide cleaner burning fuels through optimization of forestry and renewable energy management practices. In this work, beech and spruce forests of average and high quality were modelled and analysed to determine the volume of fuel wood and its associated bark fraction produced during typical forestry cycles. Two separate fuel wood bark production regimes were observed for beech trees, while only one production regime was observed for spruce. The single tree and stand models were combined with existing thinning parameters to replicate existing management practices. Utilizing estimates of initial seedling numbers and existing thinning patterns a dynamic model was formed that responded to changes in thinning practices. By varying the thinning parameters, this model enabled optimization of the forestry practices for the reduction of bark impurities in the fuel wood supply chain. Beech forestry cycles responded well to fuel cycle optimization with volume reductions of bark from fuel wood of between ∼10% and ∼20% for average and high quality forest stands. Spruce, on the other hand, was fairly insensitive to FCO with bark reductions of 0–5%. The responsiveness of beech to FCO further supports its status as the preferred RWC fuel in Switzerland. FCO could easily be extended beyond Switzerland and applied across continental Europe and North America.

Cost Analysis of Introducing a Log Identification System Using RFID in the Wood Supply Chain: A Case Study at a Swedish Forest Company

A cost analysis for the possibility of a log identification system using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is presented in this paper. The introduction provides a brief description of the RFID technology and its usefulness within the area of forest logistics. Information network mapping is used to facilitate an understanding of the current information flow and identification requirements along the supply chain. The cost analysis is performed using the method of break-even analysis using nine different scenarios by means of a case study at the Ortviken paper mill, which is located in central Sweden. The analyses of the processes in the supply chain revealed that the potential exists to streamline operations and to make more efficient use of the available resources by implementing an open loop RFID-based log tracking system in the supply chain using read only tags. Furthermore, this study indicates that even in those cases in which RFID does not provide any major improvements to the firm’s inventory management; it is still possible to achieve economic benefits. However, implementation of such a system will require further development of, in particular, the RFID tags to satisfy the feasibility requirements in the wood supply chain.

A comprehensive approach to planning the deployment of transportation assets in distributing forest products

Four different modes for transporting wood in the first three stages of the wood supply chain are introduced and compared for real–life–based test cases under various scenarios. They include log–trucks and (foldable) containers. Freight forwarders are employed by sawmills to perform the transports. Their profit is dependent on the used transport mode and the bargained revenue function, which includes different prices for full travel and empty travel times. Tabu search–based algorithms were developed and implemented to solve the emerging vehicle routing and combined vehicle routing and container scheduling problems. The obtained results specify costs and profits of the particular transport technologies and support freight forwarders in their choice of transport mode. It can be concluded that the use of foldable containers could improve the efficiency of transport in wood supply chains considerably.

A life cycle assessment case study for walnut tree (Juglans regia L.) seedlings production

High-quality wood production is based on both natural forestry populations and dedicated tree plantations, also mentioned as industrial plantations. The establishment of dedicated plantations needs high-quality seedlings, often grown in a nursery, having specific genetic and morphological features. From seed gathering to final selling, the growth of the seedlings needs human interventions and specific inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, substrates, and capital goods (e.g., pots and greenhouses). All these inputs of course can cause not negligible environmental impacts, due to their production, maintenance, and final disposal. For these reasons, the environmental impact due to seedlings production in a nursery deserves deep analysis to assess the overall impact linked to wood supply chain: it is important that wood products are able to meet high environmental standards. This study is focused on 1- and 2-year-old walnut tree (Juglans regia L.) seedlings, aimed to high-quality timber production. Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was adopted according to ISO 14040 standards. As case study, a nursery located in the South of Italy was studied. Both 1- and 2-year-old seedlings were analyzed from the LCA point of view and then compared, adopting 100 seedlings as functional unit. Three inputs, plastic production, forming, and disposal to landfill, can be identified as the greatest polluters for both 1- and 2-year-old seedlings; for all the impact categories taken into account, their emissions joined always exceeded the 50% of the total amount, reaching values up to 90% (e.g., abiotic depletion, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, and photochemical oxidation). Two-year-old production system needs more inputs than 1-year-old; therefore, its greatest environmental impact was expected, but it is interesting to stress the increasing registered over the second year of growing, which reaches values up to 747% (fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity), most of which is due to polypropylene (mulching cloth, trays, and first of all, the pots). For four out of ten impact categories, polypropylene caused the greatest impact; therefore, interventions in this phase of the production system could be useful to reduce the overall environmental impact. Further investigations regarding the mortality rate for 1- and 2-year-old seedlings (after the plantation) are needed to better compare practical, economic, and environmental aspects.