Wood-pasture Landscapes Research Articles

Social Valuation of Mediterranean Cultural Landscapes: Exploring Landscape Preferences and Ecosystem Services Perceptions through a Visual Approach

Mediterranean cultural landscapes have been recognized as multifunctional landscapes that are currently threatened by two opposing trends: rural abandonment and agricultural intensification. Uncovering people’s perceptions of different landscape configurations, and how inhabitants value the contributions of nature to human wellbeing, is essential to understanding current landscape trends. In this study, we analyze the social perception of the cultural landscapes of Sierra Morena (Andalusia, Spain) based on 389 face-to-face visual questionnaires in an attempt to understand individuals’ landscape preferences, the reasons behind those preferences and how those landscapes are perceived as suppliers of ecosystem services by different groups of stakeholders. Four groups of stakeholders were identified that differed in how they perceive and value the cultural landscape. An urban-related group was characterized by their preferences for pine plantations and “green” landscapes, guided mostly by aesthetic criteria. A livestock-related group showed a clear preference for wood–pasture landscapes (dehesas) due to their ability to supply multiple ecosystem services. An environmentally aware group showed preferences for dehesas and Mediterranean forests, mainly guided by ecological criteria. Finally, an olive-related group showed a clear preference for olive grove landscapes as key for the regional economy and their cultural identity. Overall, the local inhabitants of Sierra Morena perceived a higher supply of ecosystem services in moderately disturbed landscapes, such as dehesas and mosaic landscapes, than in highly disturbed ones, such as conventional olive groves and pine plantations, or in less used landscapes, such as the Mediterranean forest. Understanding the differences in valuation/demand for ecosystem services among groups of stakeholders, characterized by their landscape preferences, provides important information with which to identify potential trade-offs and conflicts, thereby providing insights into the improvement of landscape planning and decision making.

The contribution of small shrubby patches to the functional diversity of wood-pastures

Wood-pastures are grazed systems resulting from a long-term use of natural woodlands by humans. These social-ecological systems, covering vast areas of Europe and other temperate regions, have both high biodiversity and economic values, so many are classified as High Nature Value Farmlands. However, in some regions a loss of spatial heterogeneity threatens this natural value. We investigated the potential contribution of tiny shrubby patches to increase spatial heterogeneity and functional diversity in wood-pasture landscapes. Specifically, we compared functional composition (Community Weighted Means) and functional diversity (Functional Dispersion and Functional Evenness) of assemblages of plants, beetles and lichens in those patches (252–3000 m2) and in the wood-pasture matrix. We found that shrubby patches and matrix harbour species assemblages with very distinct functional compositions in all studied taxonomic groups. Evergreen, woody, broad-leafed and fleshy-fruited are better represented in the patches. In beetles, the main differences were a greater prevalence of small-sized and fungivore species in the patches. Shrubby patches also mostly harboured lichens with fruticose- and foliose-broad growth forms, a greater humidity preference, and lower eutrophication tolerance. Moreover, the two indexes used to quantify functional diversity (Functional Dispersion and Functional Evenness) show that, overall, diversity is greater in patches than in the matrix; in patches Functional Dispersion is statistically higher for plants, and Evenness is statistically higher for beetles and lichen. These differences are all consistent with the very distinct ecological conditions in the matrix and patches. The greater overall functional diversity of shrubby patches, and the major differences in functional composition between patches and matrix, observed for all taxa, indicate that these patches greatly enhance the functional diversity of species assemblages in wood-pasture landscapes. Consequently, preserving and promoting tiny shrubby patches is a potentially valuable low-cost management tool to increase biodiversity and improve ecosystem functioning in wood-pasture landscapes.

Increasing biodiversity in wood-pastures by protecting small shrubby patches

Wood-pastures are grazed systems, widespread across Europe, where natural and economic values often co-exist. Social and economic changes in Europe generate both threats and opportunities to these systems, calling for new or improved management strategies. We studied the potential of increasing the biodiversity of wood-pastures through the promotion of small-scale habitat diversification. More specifically, we evaluated the impact of protecting very small shrubby patches within large Mediterranean wood-pastures. We sampled species assemblages of plants, lichens and coleopterans in 13 small patches (252–3000 m2) with a well developed shrub layer, and 11 plots in the adjacent matrix of virtually shrub free wood-pasture. Despite their very small size, patches had clearly distinct assemblages of all the studied taxa and their presence greatly enhanced the species richness of the studied wood-pasture landscapes. The presence of shrubby patches increased species richness in wood-pastures by 42% for plants, 27% for lichens and 29% for coleopterans (average over two study areas), a very substantial gain considering that patches covered less than 0.5% of the studied wood-pastures. Our results indicate that the protection and promotion of even small shrubby patches is a promising low-cost nature-based strategy to increase the biodiversity value of wood-pasture landscapes, without substantially affecting the economic value of this silvopastoral system, which is an old and important part of the natural and cultural heritage of Europe.

Stakeholders’ perceptions on ecosystem services in Östergötland’s (Sweden) threatened oak wood-pasture landscapes

Ecosystem services (ES) research is currently widely utilized. However, qualitative approaches and socio-cultural valuations of ES are still limited. This may undermine future landscape conservation initiatives because important services for people may not be captured. We performed 29 face-to-face semi-structured interviews to capture stakeholders' perceptions of ES from the largest area with oak wood-pasture landscapes in Sweden (Östergötland County). A total of 34 ES were mentioned, and compared among stakeholders from public, private and civil sectors at local and regional levels of governance. Cultural ES were highlighted the most by respondents from both levels of governance. At the local level, respondents appreciated especially provisioning services. In contrast, regional level respondents showed more appreciation for supporting services. Private sector stakeholders emphasized provisioning ES, whereas the civil and public sector stakeholders highlighted cultural ES in terms of recreational values and landscape beauty. Supporting ES were considered only in relation to biodiversity, especially species and habitats linked to old oaks. Farmers and farming activities (especially grazing regimes) are crucial to support important oak wood-pasture ES. We discuss important ES as expressed by stakeholders and challenges for wood-pasture conservation in Sweden and elsewhere. To integrate the different demands of stakeholder groups into policy, enable cross-sectorial flexibility and policy regional adaptation for wood-pasture conservation, are current challenges future research should focus upon.

Searching for “shadows” and “ghosts” in the landscape

Recent research has highlighted both the presence of “ghosts” of “lost woods”, and the presence of “shadows” of one-time tree’d landscapes in the British countryside. This short research note presents an update on current findings. “Shadow woods” are those previously overlooked remnants and relicts of what we believe were former wooded commons and wood pastures, whilst “ghost woods” are the fragmented remains of one-time enclosed and named “woods”, and date back to the time of the Act of Commons or Statute of Merton, around 1235 AD. The shadows, we think, are fragments of the great and often expansive wood pasture landscapes with origins pre-Domesday, and of former wooded commons of the medieval feudal system. Both these overlooked landscape features are hugely relevant in discussions of re-construction of landscapes and of wilder futures.

Land change in eastern Mediterranean wood-pasture landscapes: the case of deciduous oak woodlands in Lesvos (Greece).

In Mediterranean Europe, wood-pasture landscapes with oak woodlands as emblematic ecosystems are undergoing rapid land-use change, which may threaten their legacy as hotspots of biodiversity, ecosystem services, and cultural heritage. The objective of this study was to quantify land cover changes and transitions as well as the dynamics of oak woodland patterns and densities over 50 years in two municipalities at the center and edges of Quercus macrolepis distribution in Northern Lesvos (Greece). We used aerial photographs from 1960 and WorldView-2 satellite images from 2010 to process land cover maps and metrics, and to calculate oak canopy cover with a point-grid sampling approach. Spatiotemporal dynamics of land cover change were generally high--especially between oak woodlands and grass- and shrub-lands, resulting in a more heterogeneous and fragmented landscape in 2010. Surprisingly, oak woodland area remained stable with marginal losses in one study site and gains in the other one. Oak canopy cover increased by 8 and 9%. Spatial hotspots of change were mountainous and peripheral phrygana areas with expanding oak stands, as well as river valleys and near urban areas with expanding olive groves and grass- and shrublands in former complex cultivation and oak stands. We conclude that the parallel processes of abandonment of crop cultivation and intensification of livestock grazing have been less detrimental to oak woodlands than supposed. To ensure long-term persistence of oak woodlands in the face of ongoing rural depopulation and land-use intensification, environmental and agricultural policies should better address their specificities as anthropogenic habitats.

Rewilding with large herbivores: The importance of grazing refuges for sapling establishment and wood-pasture formation

Rewilding is a novel nature management type that aims at restoring natural processes with minimal human intervention. It is increasingly employed on abandoned agricultural lands in Europe, but empirical studies are scarce. Rewilding may lead to formation of wood-pastures, arguably the primeval landscape in parts of Europe before Neolithic times. We investigated sapling establishment, a key process for wood-pasture formation, in the Oostvaardersplassen: Europe’s oldest large-scale rewilding area, with high densities of free-roaming large herbivores. We transplanted saplings of pioneers, spiny shrubs, and hardwood species and studied how herbivore accessibility (grazed control, partial and full exclosure), vegetation type (tall roughs; short lawns) and soil-tillage (mimicking wild boar rooting) affected sapling survival for four years. No single sapling survived in grazed controls, while survival in exclosures was 25%. Differences in survival between partial and full exclosures were minor, indicating that reduced herbivore access is sufficient for sapling survival. Survival was higher in lawn than in rough in both exclosure types and for all species, indicating positive effects of preceding grazing. Soil tillage initially benefitted all species, but effects lasted for pioneers only, suggesting that – once introduced – wild boar rooting may affect woody species composition. We conclude that rewilding with herbivores can successfully form wood-pasture landscapes on abandoned agricultural land as long as grazing refuges are present that allow for sapling establishment. As grazing refuges are generally lacking on abandoned agricultural lands, where most rewilding is foreseen, we recommend that future projects consider the presence – or creation – of grazing refuges.

Effects of large herbivores on wood pasture dynamics in a European wetland system

Whether self-regulating large herbivores play a key role in the development of wood-pasture landscapes remains a crucial unanswered question for both ecological theory and nature conservation. We describe and analyse how a ‘partly self-regulating’ population of cattle, horses and red deer affected the development of the woody vegetation in the Oostvaardersplassen nature reserve (Netherlands). Using aerial photographs from 1980 to 2011, we analysed the development of shrubs and trees. Before the large herbivores were introduced in the Oostvaardersplassen in 1983, the woody vegetation increased and vegetation type significantly affected the number of establishments. Cover of woody species increased further from 1983 to 1996, not only by canopy expansion but also by new establishments. After 1996, cover of the woody vegetation decreased from 30% to <1% in 2011 and no new establishments were seen on the photographs. Survival of Sambucus nigra and Salix spp. increased with increasing distance to grassland, which is the preferred foraging habitat of the herbivores. These results support the hypothesis of Associational Palatability. In addition, our results show that the relative decline in cover of S. nigra and Salix spp. over a certain period was negatively correlated with the cover of S. nigra in the beginning of this period, presenting some evidence for the Associational Resistance and Aggregational Resistance hypothesis. Our research shows aspects necessary for the woodland–grassland cycle, such as a strong decline of woody vegetation at high numbers of large herbivores and regeneration of shrubs and trees at low densities. Thorny shrubs, which are important for the cycle, have not yet established in the grasslands. It seems that a temporary decline in herbivore numbers is necessary to create a window of opportunity for the establishment of these woody species.

How to use domestic large herbivores in restoring Europe’s threatened woodpasture landscapes?

How to use domestic large herbivores in restoring Europe’s threatened woodpasture landscapes?

Effects of grazing by free‐ranging cattle on vegetation dynamics in a continental north‐west European heathland

Summary 1. Abandonment and eutrophication are major threats to traditional pastoral landscapes and their wildlife in Europe. Social and economical developments have rendered traditional pastoralism impracticable. More knowledge is needed about the effects of grazing with free‐ranging herbivores, which is increasingly used as a substitute for the traditional herding system. 2. We studied the effects of free‐ranging cattle on the recovery of Calluna heather, tree encroachment and plant species richness in six habitats in a grass‐rich Dutch heathland during a 10‐year period. The habitats differed in soil fertility, initial heather–grass ratio and developmental stage of Calluna. 3. Despite preferential grass defoliation, cattle grazing neither reduced grass cover in grass heath nor prevented grass invasion in heather. Grass invasion failed only in a nitrogen‐poor turf‐stripped Calluna heath. Grazing induced a substantial Calluna recovery in grass heaths on podzolic soils, but its recovery failed in grass heath on a phosphorus‐rich medieval arable field. As a consequence, the grass–heather mosaics generated by free‐ranging cattle were restricted to habitats of intermediate soil fertility. 4. Grazing did not prevent encroachment by pine and birch. Removal by the site manager prevented conversion of 10–20% of the open heathland to forest. 5. During the first 5 years, grazing induced a significant increase in species richness in all habitats. During the second 5 years, species richness stabilized in grass heath and heather–grass mosaics and it declined in the pioneer Calluna heaths. 6. We found indications of various nutrient‐mediated grazing effects on the competitive balance between grass and woody pioneers. These suggest that nutrient‐mediated feedback might be an important explanatory mechanism for the described vegetation mosaic cycling in heathlands. 7. Free‐ranging grazing did not remove the high atmospheric nutrient inputs of the whole area. Substantial amounts of nutrients were redistributed from the grass lawns to the forest. 8. Free‐ranging grazing combined with tree cutting appeared to be a suitable management regime for the maintenance of species‐rich open heathlands with dynamic grass–heather mosaics. 9. Without tree cutting, free‐ranging grazing would have created dynamic tree–grass–heather mosaics in open heathland. Wood–pasture landscapes are fundamentally different from the open heather‐dominated heathlands produced by the traditional sedentary farming system. Integrated grazing of heathland, nutrient‐rich farmland and forests accelerates this change. Alternative grazing regimes are discussed.