Wood Consumption Research Articles

PRODUCTION OF SODIUM CARBOXYMETHYLCELLULOSE FROM PINE WOOD WASTE AND INVESTIGATION OF ITS PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

With the increasing use of wood resources, wood waste disposal is becoming a more pressing issue. Wood waste can be effectively processed and reused, thus reducing environmental impact. Our study proposes using wood waste to produce sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC) with enhanced physical and chemical properties. The paper explores a promising approach to processing Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) wood waste via the suspension method to obtain the biopolymer Na-CMC. The ability to convert pine sawdust into Na-CMC meets the demand for high-quality wood raw materials, expands the biopolymer's applications, and reduces the environmental and economic burden of wood consumption. The aim of this study is to produce Na-CMC from Scots pine sawdust at 60°C and 80°C and investigate the biopolymer’s physical and chemical properties. In laboratory experiments, Na-CMC samples were synthesized at 60°C and 80°C using sodium hydroxide, propanol-2, and sodium monochloroacetate (Na-MCA). The physical and chemical properties of Na-CMC were studied such as functional groups (hydroxyl, methylene, carbonyl), alcohol and ether bonds by IR spectrophotometry; molecular mass, polymerization degree, and viscosity of polymer solutions by viscometry; carboxymethyl groups by conductometric titration; and product yield and solubility by gravimetry. The scientific and practical significance of the chemical modification of wood sawdust cellulose has been established, with carboxymethylation proving effective at 60°C

Dynamic Wood Consumption Forecast in Germany from 2020 to 2050

Against the backdrop of pressing environmental challenges such as global warming, nations are intensifying efforts to reduce energy consumption and emissions in the future. The carbon-neutral attribute of wood is being reassessed, signaling a potential shift in consumption patterns. This study aims to forecast wood consumption in Germany from 2020 to 2050 and evaluate the ability of domestic forests to meet demand. Employing a material flow analysis approach and considering recent data alongside Germany’s Climate Action 2050 goals, consumption projections were made for sectors such as building, paper, energy, furniture, and packaging. Results indicate a significant surge in wood consumption, particularly in the scenario with a high residential renovation rate, necessitating substantial wood imports to fulfill demand. Energy and building emerge as pivotal sectors for reducing wood consumption. This research fills a gap in prospective prediction on wood consumption, which is essential for aligning strategies with environmental objectives.

Assessment of Fuel Wood Consumption and Its Effect on Forest Depletion in Dry Deciduous Forest of Haliyal Taluk, Uttar Kannada District, India

Forest plays a significant role in extending wood and non-wood resources around the world, Forests provide ecosystem services, such as timber, food, fuel, fodder, non-wood products and shelter, which are essential for human well-being. However the increasing demand and pressure on forest resources majorly like fuel wood lead to degradation of forests. Hence it is important to assess the fuel wood consumption pattern and its impact on the forest for sustainable management of resources. In the present study, Haliyal taluk was selected, the area which is under rapid urbanization, surrounded by dry deciduous forest and the people living in that area depend on forest for fuel wood consumption. The study examined fuel wood collection among different farmer categories: large, medium, small, and landless. Results from the semi structured questioner survey revealed that medium farmers collected the most fuel wood. The total fuel wood consumption in Haliyal taluk was 5232.2 tonnes, with an average household consumption of 2.60 quintals of fuel wood per year. Major preferred tree species for fuel wood were Xylia xylocarpa, Terminalia tomentosa and Lagerstroemia lanceolata, which are valued for their high energy content, favourable burning characteristics and availability. For estimation of forest degradation Randomized Block Design was used and the study classified the forest vegetation into four crown density classes: Very Dense Forest (T1), Moderately Dense Forest (T2), Open Forest (T3), and Scrub (T4). Data was collected from 20 plots (20 x 20 m each) across these classes to measure forest depletion. The results showed that statistically significant differences in degradation levels, with the highest depletion (31.56 m³/ha) in very dense forests followed by moderate depletion (6.75 m³/ha) in moderately dense forests and the lowest (2.4 m³/ha) in scrub forests. This pattern reflects greater anthropogenic pressures and higher fuel wood availability in more dense forest types.

The livelihood impacts of eucalypt plantations on rural farm households in Western Gurage Watersheds, Central-south Ethiopia

BackgroundRural landscapes, particularly those close to human settlements and main roads throughout the highlands of Ethiopia, appear greener than the outfields because of eucalypt plantations. The most common factors for eucalypt plantations are two: fuel and construction demands and to generate income. ObjectiveThis study tried to investigate the socioeconomic impacts of eucalypt plantations in Western Gurage Watersheds located in Central-south Ethiopia. The specific objectives are: to evaluate the socioeconomic importance of eucalypt plantations on the livelihood of farm households, and to assess perceptions on impacts of eucalypt plantation and copping strategies. MethodsSystematic and purposive sampling method was employed by selecting households with eucalypt woodlots from the list of each Woreda's Kebeles. Close- and open- ended questionnaires were distributed to every fifth households that possessed eucalypt plantations. Three hundred eighty three questionnaires were distributed and collected from households found in three Woredas (districts) namely Cheha, Enemorna Ener, and Eza located in the Watersheds. To supplement the information critical observations, discussions with focus groups and interviews with key informant were employed. The survey data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. To describe data acquired from critical observations, focus group discussions and key informant interviews; critical and logical qualitative data analysis technique were used. Descriptive and dispersive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, variance, standard deviation, p- value and correlation were employed using SPSS Version 20. ResultsThe result showed that eucalypt plantation dominated fuel wood and construction consumption and substituted further encroachment to natural forests. From multiple responses given, households prefer planting eucalypts to indigenous trees because it is fast growing (100 %), profitable (100 %), needs lesser labor (100 %), needs lower capital (100 %), can be used for multipurpose (100 %), and coppice itself fatly (93 %). They rated income gained from eucalypt as 2nd next to enset. ConclusionsHouseholds may continue planting the species particularly for fuel wood and construction need since substituting it by other alternative seems not feasible and challenging. To sustain the livelihood and environment; appropriate management like site selection and substitutions by horticultural and cash crops using micro irrigation schemes for market needs are recommended. Conducting in-depth participatory research and specific policy ratification and promulgation on eucalypt plantations will sustain its utilization and curb the drawbacks.

The Long-Term Effects of the Lacey Act Amendment on High-Risk Timber Species: Insights from 15 Years of Interrupted Time Series Analysis

Despite comprising a small portion of U.S. wood consumption, tropical hardwoods like Keruing and Meranti are highly valued for their aesthetic and physical properties. However, their sustainability is threatened by illegal logging and over-harvesting, compounded by the use of generic names that obscure species identities, complicating trade monitoring and regulation. Enacted in May 2008, the Lacey Act Amendment (LAA) aims to ensure the legality of plant and plant product sourcing in the U.S. This study evaluates the LAA's impact on the import of these tropical hardwoods from Indonesia and Malaysia, hypothesizing that the amendment has curtailed illegal imports, thereby reducing import volumes and increasing prices. Using data from 1990 to 2023, we employed i) intervention multiple regression analysis with Autoregressive Error and ii) intervention Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models with Step Transfer Function to analyze changes in import trends. Findings indicate that while LAA has significantly impacted import trends as anticipated, the effects are complex and evolving over time, highlighting the need for ongoing regulation analysis and enforcement monitoring. This research underscores the critical role of targeted legal frameworks in promoting sustainable trade practices and conservation, offering valuable insights for policymakers aiming to combat exploitative and illegal logging globally.

A Review on Fuel Wood Consumption and Implications on the Environment

A Review on Fuel Wood Consumption and Implications on the Environment

Household Fuelwood Consumption and Its Implication for Carbon Dioxide Emission

This review paper aims to gather informative data on the impact of climate extremes on the physical environment, public health, and the livelihoods of people in Ethiopia. The primary sources of data for this review were peer-reviewed journal articles obtained from electronic databases such as PubMed, Central, Scopus, and Web of Science. Globally, the vast majority of households in developing countries depend on wood energy for their daily energy needs. Such consumption trends are expected to remain a common feature of traditional wood energy production and consumption, at least in the short- to medium-terms. This situation increases the demand for firewood and charcoal from the forest. The process of harvesting standing trees for charcoal and fire wood leads to forest degradation. Although woody biomass has the function of energy consumption, and as a source of income for rural villagers and urban poor dwellers practicing agriculture, wood energy generally has low priority in national policies of developing countries. However, unsustainable management and negative environmental consequences in humid and dry forests is derived from the use of fuel wood energy. Still now there is an unsystematic assessment of the economic contribution and environmental consequences of wood energy use, so its significance and consequences have been minimized. This deforestation and forest degradation contributes 1–2.4 Gt CO2e of greenhouse gases, which is 2–7% of global anthropogenic emissions, with global greenhouse gas emissions mostly CO2.

Experimental study of improved cookstove with primary and secondary sources

Improved cookcookstoves are cooking devices using biomass such as wood and charcoal. Although existing improved cookcookstoves contribute to reducing wood consumption, this consumption is still considerable, and the smoke produced is a source of many illnesses. It is therefore necessary to work on further improving these "improved cookstoves". The present work concerns the construction of an improved cookstove with primary and secondary sources. The device is essentially made from recycled materials. Boiling tests were carried out, the mass of charcoal consumed recorded and the efficiency of the cookstove calculated. The results obtained from the water boiling test experiments show that the boiling time with the secondary-source cookstove is faster than with the primary-source cookstove alone. The secondary-source cookstove has an overall thermal efficiency of 38%, while the improved single-primary-source cookstove has an overall thermal efficiency of 11%. In terms of total charcoal consumption, the primary-source cookstove consumed 1.19 kg throughout the test, while the secondary-source cookstove consumed just 0.38kg.

Novel acrylamide-based baits for effective control of subterranean termites (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae).

Acrylamide-based bait has super water absorption making it highly attractive to subterranean termites that are lured by wood with high water content. This study investigated the control efficiency of these baits on subterranean termites. In particular, we evaluated the water-absorption capacity, attractiveness to subterranean termites, and control efficiency of these baits on subterranean termites through wooden blocks (Populus deltoides and three types of particleboards). The results indicated a substantial water absorption capacity of acrylamide (70.6%; control: 14.8%) and a strong attraction for feeding subterranean termites (P. deltoides: 198 highest; 81 lowest subterranean termites individuals; combination of neem leaves and walnut shells: 168 highest; 36 lowest subterranean termites individuals). When acrylamide was combined with boric acid at the highest concentration, it resulted in the lowest wood consumption rates (P. deltoides: 24.1%; control: 63.8%, combination of neem leaves and walnut shells: 32.5%; control: 62.1%). In conclusion, this research supports the commercial viability of employing innovative acrylamide-based toxic baits and particleboards for subterranean termite management. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Comparative analysis of fuel wood consumption of improved mud stove and three stone fire stove: a case study

Comparative analysis of fuel wood consumption of improved mud stove and three stone fire stove: a case study

Slow burn: Weak energy transition in a growing economy

Despite impressive recent gains in income (now classified by the World Bank as a “high income country”), and access to alternative heating systems, Chileans continue to have amongst the highest levels of per-capita wood consumption in the world, with serious attendant health and environmental implications. In this paper, we estimate the income elasticity of the use of firewood as a primary residential heating system in Chilean households. Our estimate accounts for the country’s climatic, geographic, and socio-demographic variation; controls for multiple levels of fixed-effects and covariates; and accounts for selection—as some households choose no heating systems whatsoever. We find that an increase of income of 10% decreases the probability of firewood use by about one-tenth of a percentage point, a statistically significant but economically trivial effect. This result, consistent across various robustness checks, provides evidence for an extremely weak income-based energy transition in Chile. It implies that passive environmental policy, expecting a reduction of firewood use exclusively from income growth will fail. If the Chilean government’s aim is to lower the detrimental health and environmental outcomes associated with firewood use, they will have to adopt more aggressive approaches.

Improving residential wood burning emission inventories with the integration of readily available data sources

Residential wood burning (RWB) is the largest anthropogenic source of PM2.5 in many North American and European cities in the winter. The current lack of information on the locations, types, and intensity of use of wood burning appliances limits the ability to accurately assess the exposure of the population to RWB emissions. In this study, we generated a high spatial resolution emission inventory for RWB in the province of Quebec, Canada using a novel data driven approach. The method first combines real estate and socioeconomic census data through machine learning models to estimate ownership rates of fireplaces and wood stoves. These ownership rates are then combined with household survey data (on wood consumption and types of appliances), emission factors and building registry data to generate the emission inventory at a 1Km2 resolution. Our proposed approach was able to capture spatial patterns in RWB appliance ownership and intensity of use, which may be overlooked by using simple urban vs rural or population based spatial proxies. The machine learning models explained 80.3 % and 63 % of the variability in wood stove and fireplace ownership rates with each appliance type exhibiting different spatial trends. Wood stoves were common in rural areas and among lower income households, whereas fireplaces were more common in urban areas. Additionally, we observed large spatial and regional variability in emissions per residence due to differences in wood consumption, appliance ownership rates, and appliance mixes (e.g. conventional vs certified). Our results suggest that using simple spatial proxies based on population, urbanization levels or residence type are not enough to explain the spatial distribution of RWB emissions as they might overlook other factors such as socioeconomic factors or regional heating preferences. Finally, our spatially distributed emissions were strongly correlated (r = 0.86) with the increase in PM2.5 concentrations during peak-RWB hours on winter weekends at 42 reference stations across the province of Quebec.

Using random forest to improve EMEP4PL model estimates of daily PM2.5 in Poland

Long-term exposure to poor air quality is responsible for many diseases and increased mortality worldwide. European Environmental Agency reports that Poland is one of the most polluted countries in Europe due to high emissions associated with large coal and wood consumption and specific weather conditions. Exceedances of WHO-recommended PM2.5 thresholds are still common in Poland, so further action is needed to protect the health of the population. Atmospheric chemical transport models (CTMs) provide information on air quality to the public and are used to regulate air pollutant emissions. However, uncertainties associated with CTMs, related to e.g. physical/chemical processes and input data quality often lead to underestimation of pollutant concentrations, especially for PM2.5, and limits the applicability of CTMs e.g. for health impact studies.A hybrid approach combining the EMEP4PL chemical transport model for Poland with the Random Forest (RF) machine learning algorithm was applied to address the limitations of CTM and reduce its underestimation. We used EMEP4PL-modelled PM2.5 concentrations for period 2016–2019 as a predictor and measured daily PM2.5 from 71 monitoring stations in Poland as a dependent variable in three RF scenarios, which differed in terms of the selected predictors. The impact of different additional variables for the area was revealed, including population and emission data, dominant type of land use, Weather and Research Forecast (WRF) meteorological parameters, and temporal patterns of PM2.5 concentrations across the years. The models were evaluated in a random 5-fold and spatial leave-one-station-out cross-validations (LOSOCV), as well as for an independent test set. Our final model achieved a test set R2 of 0.71, compared to 0.38 for EMEP4PL, along with a reduction in negative bias (0.25 μg m−3 for the final RF, compared to −11 μg m−3 for EMEP4PL) and an improved ability to detect severe PM2.5 episodes. Enhanced coefficients of determination were observed in all seasons and at all monitoring sites included in the study, for both types of cross-validation and for the test set. We estimated the contribution of each group of variables separately and discovered, that the most impactful predictors for the area of Poland included temporal patterns of PM2.5 calculated based on the averages of EMEP4PL outcome (such as day of the year, week number, etc.) and meteorological modelled factors related to temperature, planetary boundary layer height, wind speed, and atmospheric pressure. The developed approach provides a basis for improved spatiotemporal estimates and forecasting of PM2.5 in the region, which is an important step toward better understanding the impact of air pollution on the local population well-being.

Encouraging Invasive Acacia Control Strategies by Repurposing Their Wood Biomass Waste for Pulp and Paper Production

Concerns on the expanding infestation of several Acacia species in the southern Mediterranean European countries have triggered an ever-growing requirement for costly targeted control actions. Valorizing biomass waste produced could help promote and better finance these actions. For that purpose, wood wastes from invasive control actions were tested regarding their pulp and paper potential, aiming to entice cellulose industries to partake in future conservation actions. Wood waste from the five most pervasive Acacia species was studied (Acacia dealbata Link, Acacia longifolia Willd, Acacia mearnsii De Wild, Acacia melanoxylon R.Br, and Acacia saligna Labill) regarding physical and chemical characteristics, and a central composite design was used to optimize alkali charge and reaction temperature on pulping yield and delignification. Bleached kraft pulps were produced with each species’ optimized conditions and for an equitable mixture of all species. Optimized pulp yields (52.6%–53.5%) and pulp polymerization degree (2867–3690) of Acacia species were higher than those of Eucalyptus globulus Labill (used as reference). Optimized bleached pulps were refined and fiber, pulp, and handsheet properties determined. Acacia dealbata and A. longifolia presented high specific wood consumption and lower handsheet strength properties, pointing to overall lower pulping potential, while A. melanoxylon and A. mearnsii characteristics were equal to or higher than those of E. globulus. A. saligna pulp and handsheet characteristics appear more suited for tissue paper. The Acacia mixture achieved acceptable characteristics, enabling the indiscriminate use of Acacia wood regardless of the species. As a shortcoming, the Acacia pulps showed the worst optical characteristics, with brightness dropping substantially with beating (64%–76%) when compared to E. globulus (81%).

BRAZILIAN SAWMILLS

The Brazilian Forest Sector is one of the most productive in the world with a good share of the Brazilian Gross Domestic Product. The furniture sector represents about 18% of the consumption of planted wood in Brazil and employs about 35% of the workforce in the sector. They are micro and small companies that generate a lot of jobs and fix the workforce in the countryside; however, the obsolete machinery and poorly trained workforce are responsible for the low productivity and profitability of the sector. The objective of this work was to identify the main problems and point out solutions for them. The main raw material and machinery indicators were identified, as well as corrective measures for each of them. The main conclusions were that the sector must organize itself in productive poles seeking the maximum specialization or the smallest number of products per establishment.

Enhancing Sustainable Construction: Optimization Tool for Glulam Roof Structures According to Eurocode 5

The construction industry has a notably negative impact on the environment; thus, the promotion of the use of timber structures is an alternative to mitigate its effects. This research develops an artificial intelligence-based decision approach in the calculation of timber structures focused on the enhancement of the sustainability of roof structures. Based on the optimization carried out through genetic algorithms and the framework established in Eurocode 5, a general set of equations has been proposed for a laminated timber roof structure. The tool, which determines the most suitable roof structure for each strength class of laminated timber, allows for the determination of the dimensions of beams and purlins and their respective separations in order to minimize wood consumption. The ultimate goal is to offer multiple solutions regarding strength classes and structural designs in order to foster sustainability-informed choices that promote efficient use of resources in construction.

Assessment of the efficiency of improved cooking stoves and their impact in reducing forest degradation and contaminant emissions in Eastern Rwanda

Biomass is a major source of cooking energy in Rwanda. This high dependence on biomass strongly contributes to forest degradation, biodiversity loss, and atmospheric pollution. Shifting from the traditional three-stone stove (TSS) to improved cooking stoves (ICS) is being promoted to reduce wood consumption and air pollutant emissions. This study assessed the emission reduction of adopted ICS and their impact on forest conservation through a combined laboratory and kitchen performance test (KPT).Out of 940 households surveyed in Eastern Province (EP) of Rwanda, 317 used ICS. Among these users, 180 were selected and revisited for an in-depth interview about the adoption process. The four most popular ICSs were selected for evaluating thermal efficiency and emissions of contaminating gases using laboratory test protocol ISO 19867-1. In addition, the avoided wood consumption of improved cooking stoves compared to the TSS was assessed using a KPT in 100 households.The survey findings indicate that 33.7 % of households use only ICS, 23.1 % only TSS, and 56.4 % ICS and TSS combined. The laboratory results show that the Save80 stove had the highest thermal efficiency (45.8 %) followed by Igisubizo (32.8 %), EcoZoom (32.6 %), and Songa (29.6 %). The emission results showed a significant difference in CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions (p = 0.001) between the ICS models. However, the emissions of PM2.5 (fine particulate matter) and CO (carbon monoxide) of ICS were high compared to the WHO (World Health Organization) guidelines.The KPT results show that using ICS would result in an estimated annual saving of 149,313 tons of firewood corresponding to 0.7 m3 of wood, leading to an annual equivalent reduction of 0.02 ha of forest per household and 7167 ha of forest in the EP. The KPT results show that using ICS reduced CO2 emissions by 0.372 tons per household per year and by 111,088 tons of CO2 in the EP. ICSs have been shown to enhance fuelwood efficiency, leading to reduced forest degradation.

Analysis of the tensile process energy consumption of coniferous wood exposed to seawater

Analysis of the tensile process energy consumption of coniferous wood exposed to seawater

Effect of unilateral surface compression technique and heat treatment on industrial application performance of poplar

The utilization of unilateral surface compression technique offers significant advantages such as reduced volume loss of wood and energy consumption, making it highly promising for widespread applications. This work focused on fast-growing poplar (Ctrl) as research subject. The unilateral surface compression technique was employed to prepare compressed wood (USW), while superheated steam was utilized to suppress rebound effects (resulting in the formation of US＆HW). The results showed that the combination of densification and heat treatment technology significantly enhanced the application performance of wood. Compared to Ctrl, the densified area exhibited a significant reduction in the volume of cell cavities, with a stepped distribution evident on the VDP. Furthermore, heat treatment resulted in a decrease in the relative amount of hydroxyl in the wood, as well as a slight increase in crystallinity. This effectively reduced deformation in dense wood, resulting in a 20.02% reduction in its recovery rate, without causing excessive damage to the VDP. Additionally, Heat treatment resulted in a darker wood color, reduced glossiness, increased roughness, and further increase the water contact angle of the compressed wood. The mechanical performance of US＆HW achieved an excellent grade, with a score of 48, while all six processing performance grades of US＆HW exceeded Grade 3, surpassing those of both USW and Ctrl. The finishing performance of the US＆HW was good, although slightly lower than that of USW in terms of ball impact performance. And the adhesion, hardness and abrasion resistance indexes of the paint film meet the requirements of excellent products in the standard.

Improved Biomass Stoves in Rural Areas in Karnataka, India

Aims: the study aimed to quantify fuel wood consumption in traditional and biomass stoves as well asto estimate the Carbon dioxide (Co2) and carbon monoxide (Co) while cooking with different fuel wood.
 Study Design: exploratory and experimental.
 Place and Duration of Study: The duration of the Study was 2 years and the place of the study was Dharwad and Vijayapur districts of Karnataka state India.
 Methodology: Keeping this in view a study was conducted in two villages namely Timmapur Village of Dharwad district and Bhaganager Village of Vijayapur district Karanarak State India. From each village 60 households were selected randomly thus total sample size comprises 120 rural women.
 Results: About 80 per cent of the women were illiterate in Timmapur and 76.70 per cent of the women were illiterate in Bhaganagar. The quantity of ash, charcoal and smoke after food preparation was significantly varied in both villages. A reduction in the percentage of both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide was found in biomass stoves compared to traditional stoves. The experimental research revealed that 58 per cent of the fuel wood was saved per year per 100 families when compared to traditional stoves. Whereas the traditional stove consumes 1200 kg /month/100 families.
 Conclusion: Improved biomass stoves should be promoted to encourage rural women to better use the stove.