Wooden Architecture Research Articles

Деревенские святыни: обетные кресты Мезени

Wooden architecture is a special, independent direction of The Russian traditional construction. Its unique quality and diversity are represented in Russia, which has always been a “forest, taiga” country. This truly is a national architecture, that had absorbed the mythopoetic and Christian worldview of the people. The history of Russian wooden architecture is largely the history of wooden architecture in the Russian North. The subject of this study is the peasant rural sacral objects: votive crosses of the Mezen`, one of the most severe regions of the Russian North. The author relies on several sources: field materials (architectural-ethnographic expeditions), with measurements, photographic recording, and the preparation of scientific passports. As well as work with informants: collecting local narratives and legends related to the history of specific crosses, the experience of practical museumification and setting up the votive cross and the village foundation pillar in the Mezen` sector of the Museum “Malye Korely”. The paper analyzes crosses as historical, ethnographic, stavrographic sources, works of wooden architecture and woodcarving, Pomors pilot signs. The aim of the study is to determine the meaning of the cross as one of the main symbols of the Orthodoxy in the cultural landscape of the Northern and Arctic territories.

Architectural wood remains and climatic variations in early 2nd millennium CE, northwest Alaska: reflections on the possibilities and limits of Dendroarchaeology

Architectural wood elements are well-preserved in cold soils and archaeological Thule/Iñupiat sites of the early 2nd millennium CE in northwestern Alaska. These organic remains, at the intersection of archaeology, palaeoclimatology, and ecology, offer an annual and local resolution rarely accessible to archaeologists, providing insights on past climate variations. In a context where cultural variations of past arctic people are often interpreted as responses to climatic and environmental changes, this paper is a state-of-the-art examination of the dendroclimatic potential of Iñupiat architectural wood remains based on current knowledge. The focus is especially on current possibilities and limits of early Iñupiat architectural wood remains and the need to build a finer sequence for the period of the Medieval Climate Anomaly [MCA] (9th-13th century) to contribute to a broader understanding of the climatic framework of the early 2nd millennium and of early Iñupiat socio-ecological dynamics in Northwest Alaska for future research.

Wooden Church Architecture of Kargopol and the River Onega Areas in 17th–18th Centuries

The article is devoted to the analysis of the typological diversity and artistic and expressive means of wooden church architecture of Kargopol’ area in the 17th–18th centuries — one of the most interesting regions of the Russian North. An examination of the configurations of the roofing of the main volumes demonstrates the widespread existence of various types. The cube-shaped churches of Kargopol’ area represent a significant part of the monuments of this typological subspecies, also localized in the Lower Onega River and southern White Sea region. At the same time, in Kargopol’ area there is a concentration of temples with a wedge roof and a “barrel” top. The research of spatial solutions shows that the octagonal churches of Kargopol’ area stand out noticeably against the background of such universal and extra-regional compositions as “an octagonal structure on a quadrangle with a refectory” or cross-planned churches. Tower-shaped churches, like the six-walled bell towers of Kargopol’ area, can also be seen against the background of the fortification architecture in the Lower Onega River, which received a powerful impetus in the 17th century in connection with the construction of the Kargopol, Ust-Mosh and Turchasovsky forts. Kargopol refectories “with free communication” are also becoming a kind of local phenomenon. The main feature of the ensemble character of Kargopol architecture is the connection between the constituent elements with the help of porches, galleries and passages. Field surveys of monuments and the use of archival sources on the history of temple construction in Kargopol’ area testify to the colossal creative potential that was fully realized during the 17th–18th centuries in the picturesque variety of forms of both individual monuments and general ensemble solutions. No less important is the fact that the Kargopol’ tradition did not remain closed in itself; its spread to adjacent regions and interweaving with the architecture of the Lower Onega River and on the White Sea coasts scales up the architecture of Kargopol’ area and makes it one of the most striking and large phenomena in the wide panorama of wooden architecture monuments throughout the Russian North.

PEASANT DWELLING OF THE RUSSIAN POPULATION IN THE MARI KRAI OF THE XIX – EARLY XX CENTURY: TYPOLOGICAL ASPECT

The relevance of the study is determined by understanding the role of a settlement and housing complex in forming the resettlement centers of Russian relocatees in the Mari frontier-governorate, as they reflect a combination of traditional principles of forming a life support system and developing new living conditions. The importance of the chosen historical period for the study should also be noted; it contains a gradual transition to a new form of socio-economic development of the Russian Empire’s society and is accompanied by transformation of a number of cultural elements of the people, including those in the development of construction and architecture, household and everyday life.
 
 The purpose of the study is to analyze the housing complex of the Russians in order to identify criteria that determine its typological characteristics and features.
 
 Materials and methods. The source base of the research was the materials of written historical sources of an official, clerical, statistical and descriptive nature (circulars, orders, extracts, bills of sale, essays, notes on the economic state, etc.). A separate layer is made by cartographic material, including drawings and plans of rural settlements stored in the republican archive. The photographic material enables not only to illustrate typological characteristics, but also reflects continuity. Thus, the research uses the methods of analyzing a wide range of historical sources, including archival documents, some of which were published, cartographic material, photographic material of museum collections and ethnographic field material, historical-comparative, historical-typological methods.
 
 Study results. The results of the study on defining the typology of a dwelling of the Russian population of the Mari frontier-governorate in the XIX – early XX century are proposed. Studying the issues of resettlement and populating the territory of the Mari frontier-governorate by the Russians makes it possible to identify the main resettlement centers of the Russian population in the region, to track the former places of residence of the settlers, in order to determine the local cultural and common characteristics of the Russians, including those reflected in the settlement and housing complex. The main criteria for determining the typological characteristics of a peasant housing complex are identified, among which the geographical and the socio-economic factors play a primary role. The article offers an attempt to reflect the combination of the tradition of Russian wooden architecture and the influence of ethno-cultural interaction due to cohabitation of the Russian and Mari populations. The typology of the dwelling is based on a whole range of criteria, including the location of the dwelling in-situ, the dependence of the dwelling’s location on the layout of the settlement itself and taking into account the landscape, availability of building material and the choice of the place for construction, the layout of a peasant yard and the internal layout of the house. Transformational processes affect both the construction technology and the exterior decoration of the house, as well as the internal improvement of the dwelling. The article emphasizes the importance of mutual influence of the Russians and the Mari, a special contribution of the Russian culture and everyday life, as well as traditional construction principles to the development of the life support system of the Mari people. At the same time, the government policy in the field of Russian colonization in the Volga region and in urban planning, regular planning and development of fire prevention measures also played a role.
 
 Conclusions. Residential development determines the appearance and shape of the settlement, its layout and socio-economic development. At the same time, a dwelling is a reflection of the history, culture, ethnicity of its inhabitants, since the heterogeneity of its population, adherence to tradition and perception of innovations, new trends in the field of construction, architecture, economy and everyday life can be determined by the residential complex.

Inorganic-accelerated aging method: An efficient and simple strategy to obtain antique Chinese fir wood for the restoration of ancient wooden architecture

Ancient wooden architectures, the precious material cultural heritages of mankind, were faced with huge potential safety hazards because of the excessive aging and natural disaster. Replacing failed wood structure with antique wood is a proper and sustainable method for the repairment and reinforcement, however restricted by the lack of antique wood and mature wood antique technology. In this work, an inorganic-accelerated aging method was put forward to simulate the aging of Chinese fir wood. The as prepared antique wood exhibited a very similar surface color to that of the ancient wood, with a small chromatic aberration of only 4.4. The change of chemical compositions after inorganic-accelerated aging was also explored that hemicellulose was degraded greatly accompanied by the partly degradation of lignin and amorphous cellulose, which were similar to the nature aging process and resulted in an increase of wood crystallinity. Besides the as obtained a-W exhibited satisfactory mechanical strength, of which the bending modulus, static bending strength and compressive strength was 97.7 %, 93.4 % and 93.6 % of the ancient wood, respectively. This work provides a promising strategy for the preparing of antique wood, which is of great significance for the restoration of ancient wood architectures.

Wood in Lithuanian and Finnish architecture: the legacy of architectural tradition and possibilities for its contemporary use

ABSTRACT Lithuania has a long tradition of using wooden architecture. Wooden structures have, however, started to decline in number, not only because of new materials and technologies, but also due to Soviet legacies. Bearing in mind the current importance of sustainability and resilience, the authors discuss why contemporary wooden architecture thrives in some countries of the Baltic/Nordic region, especially in Finland, while it continues to be marginalized in Lithuania. The authors suggest that this is due to the lack of an integral understanding of wooden architecture in Lithuania’s society and state institutions. Advances in architectural phenomenology as well as the demands of sustainability might change the status quo in Lithuania.

Endangered Religious Cultural Heritage

In the Carpathian region, there are numerous churches of different denominations built in different architectural styles, including masterpieces of wooden architecture, which are of particular interest from both a cognitive and pilgrimage perspective. The churches of wooden architecture in the Carpathian region are the subject of excursions and cognitive religious tourism, and some of them are included in the UNESCO heritage list. The paper aims to represent and interpret this religious heritage through the narration of places, understood as "topoi" endowed with distinctive identities. The religious heritage of wooden churches is in fact the identity expression of ethnic minorities; identity is substantiated in architecture through the use of particular construction techniques. Starting from the analysis of the heritage of wooden churches in the Carpathian region, the paper intends to propose innovative ways of multiple immersive narratives where the built religious heritage assumes the function of a tool capable of restoring the narrated reality and acting as a support for a hermeneutics of places. Constructing narratives of these places is very important for the preservation of the heritage of wooden churches, which today is experiencing many threats. In addition to bearing witness to local identity processes and conflicts and cooperation between different religions, they are able to increase the attractiveness of their territory and invite and guide visitors to come into contact with these places and establish an empathetic and reciprocal relationship with them.

The Role of Wooden Architecture in Sustainable Societies in Vietnam

Constructed with sustainable materials, wooden buildings are attracting attention for their potential contributions to maintaining and preserving the environment and reducing the environmental burden. Further, raw wood material is renewable and recyclable based on sustainable forest management and can absorb and store carbon dioxide during its growth and use. The potential of wooden architecture in Vietnam is discussed from the perspectives of culture, earthquake resistance, durability, fire protection, and energy conservation, and also its contribution to the local economy.

The Role of Wooden Architecture in Sustainable Societies in Vietnam

Constructed with sustainable materials, wooden buildings are attracting attention for their potential contributions to maintaining and preserving the environment and reducing the environmental burden. Further, raw wood material is renewable and recyclable based on sustainable forest management and can absorb and store carbon dioxide during its growth and use. The potential of wooden architecture in Vietnam is discussed from the perspectives of culture, earthquake resistance, durability, fire protection, and energy conservation, and also its contribution to the local economy.

Chinese wooden architecture. From historical traditions to modern design

The building traditions of China go back to the deep past. Wood as a building material helped to withstand many natural disasters, and also provided a high speed of construction. The valleys of the Huang He and Yangtze rivers, where Chinese civilization originated, are rich in vegetation. First of all, it is bamboo, which was widely used for the construction of ancient residential buildings. With the development of building technologies, wood, like bamboo, has become the most common material for building not only residential buildings, but also temples. The basis of Chinese structures is dominated by the frame system, since it is the most resistant to earthquakes and floods. Geographic location also played a role in shaping the structure of the residential building. All constructive solutions of Chinese architecture were preserved by builders for several thousand years. The question arises: are there any modern trends in traditional construction?

Green Color of the Facades of Orthodox Churches of the Podlaskie Voivodeship in the Context of Sacred Architecture and Theology

The purpose of this article is to present interdisciplinarily the connection between architecture and theology. The research was conducted using manuscript sources (inventory cards of architectural and construction monuments from the collections of the Provincial Monument Protection Office in Białystok), printed materials, as well as subject literature and internet sources. Photographic inventories of the sacred objects were carried out, as well as conversations with clergymen. The aim of the research was to verify the hypothesis that theology has a significant impact on shaping the architecture of Orthodox churches. Symbolism in the architecture of churches encompasses many aspects, including the color scheme of the facades. The Podlaskie Voivodeship has the largest number of Orthodox churches in Poland. These areas are associated with wooden architecture due to the easy availability of raw materials. The attribute of wooden Orthodox churches in this area is the variety of colors on their facades.
 Colors have a rich theological symbolism that is often associated with the cult of saints. It is particularly visible in icons. The study covered seven green churches in the Podlaskie Voivodeship, in the towns of Anusin, Koźliki, Narew, Pasynki, Trześcianka, and Tyniewicze Duże. Among the studied objects, one is currently green, and the others had this feature in the past. The temples were described in terms of dating, plan shape, and facade color occurrence. The research showed a connection between the green color of the facade and its theological symbolism. An architect of an ideal temple analogous to those included in the study should combine the art of aesthetic design with the principles of theology. The synergy of architecture and theology is necessary in such objects, and thanks to it, they are beautiful.

DEVELOPMENT TRENDS AND ASSESSMENT OF CHANGES IN RECREATION WOODEN ARCHITECTURE OF THE CARPATHIAN REGION

The article summarizes the experience of researching the architectural features of wooden recreation facilities in the Carpathian recreation region. Local and general trends in the development of recreational architecture are formulated. The negative and positive aspects of the development of the recreational industry within the Ukrainian Carpathian region are identified. The specific features of the architectural solutions of recreational facilities are formulated. When researching the genesis of architectural and planning decisions, it was discovered that this type of historical building, which was widespread in the region, was transformed into a public catering establishment. The development and complications of functional planning and volume solutions of modern cradles are shown on the example of specific samples. A comparative assessment of the changes and development of modern recreational architecture made of wood in the Carpathians was carried out. It was carried out on the basis of the periodization of the development of the Carpathian region already formed in the scientific literature. Features of recreational wooden architecture of each of the historical stages, including the modern period, are characterized.

Wooden Manor Houses In Estonia 1700–1850: From Archaic Traditions to Modern Ideas

Estonian manorial architecture has been a topic of interest toarchitectural and art historians for the last hundred years, buthundreds of wooden manor houses, of which many still exist day,have largely remained unnoticed. The reason for this lack of researchinto wooden architecture are manifold but can most easily beassociated with socially complex relationships and previous researchmethods, resulting in the only monograph to date, Gustav Ränk’s Dieälteren baltischen Herrenhöfe in Estland (1971), which analysed woodenarchitecture in the 17th century, known in Estonia as the Swedishperiod. Since it is generally accepted that previous classificationsof wooden architecture do not allow for great conclusions, the aimof this article is to give an overview of the architectural genesis ofwooden manor houses during the manorial ‘golden era’, asking howmodern ideas made their way into local architecture. In this regard,this paper also deals with architectural treatises and handbooks fromthe 18th and early decades of the 19th centuries and the question ofthe adaptation of architectural theorists’ ideas to local architecture.The genesis of Estonian wooden manorial architecture can bedivided into three distinguished periods that are similar to the overalldevelopment of manorial architecture in the Baltics. Although thevery first wooden noble residences built at the beginning of the 18thcentury were small urbaltisch buildings with a central chimney thatresembled those built in the Swedish era, newer architectural formsmore in touch with the architectural trends of the time appearedon lands that had either escaped the negative consequences of theGreat Northern War and plague or had been donated by the Russianrulers. In other places, manorial architecture continued with thetraditions, which began to change more strongly in the second half ofthe century, reflecting the landlords’ greater need for representativepurposes. This not only brought changes to construction techniquesbut also to the buildings’ overall appearance: most wooden dwellingsdoubled in size and were decorated according to late Baroque orearly Neoclassical elements. More major changes took place in thefirst decades of the 19th century, which gave contemporaries a chanceto describe wooden dwellings as ‘light and summery’, testifying tochanges in building traditions.Since at this stage of research only a handful of building masters,masons and construction carpenters are known to have worked inthe building of wooden manor houses, this article suggests that thelandlords may also have drawn the ground plans themselves, with thehelp of architectural treatises and handbooks of the time. Althoughthe architectural ideas of Nikolaus Goldmann, Friedrich ChristianSchmidt and David Gilly are tangible, it is possible that in manycases the influence was more indirect and depended on the generalstylistic and technical changes of the period. This architecturalconservativism can partly be explained by the fact that Baltic manorslargely depended on local craftsmen and peasants from nearbyvillages, but also by the nobility’s general aversion to all things new.A much more accessible treatise for many noblemen at the time mayhave been the economic handbook written by local pastor AugustWilhelm Hupel, which included some thoughts on the buildingprocess; however, since he did not introduce any new architecturalideas, but rather carried on with the local traditions, it is possiblethat his ideas were put to practice elsewhere, where landlords didnot actively live. The same conclusion can be drawn about thestandardised model façade projects, which made certain façadescompulsory for cities in the Russian Empire in the early decadesof the 19th century, but had very little effect on Estonian woodenmanor houses.Although this article brings clarity to many aspects of woodenmanorial architecture, the most important contribution to the historyof Baltic manorial architecture is bringing attention to the fact thatwood as a building material was not only widespread but held adominant role in building practice. This not only emphasises Balticmanorial architecture’s peripheral role on the map of European art,but also creates new perspectives to delve deeper into the connectionswith Scandinavia and other countries, where the material played apart in the building practices of the higher and lower strata of society.

Reassessing the Proportional System of Joseon Era Wooden Architecture: The Bracket Arm Length and Width as a Standard Modular Method

Previous research has agreed that standard modular methods in Song Yingzao Fashi and Qing Gongcheng Zuofa were not applied to Korean wooden architecture. This study notes the size of bracket arms as a standard modular method by investigating the proportion systems of Sungnyemun, Paldalmun, and Heunginjimun Gates, the official government buildings of the Joseon Dynasty. The purlin direction bracket arms in the intercolumnar bracket sets apply a proportional system in the ratio of a regular integer relationship to the front and side facades and building height. Challenging current assumptions, the application of the bracket arm width as a modular rule is divided into more subdivided values than the measurement units. A particularly important finding is that, unlike the height of the bracket arms, the width and length of the brackets are standard members that determine the height of the side facades. This is very similar to the official government building styles in the Song and Qing Dynasties, premodern China. Therefore, this study is meaningful in reassessing wooden frame structures of the Joseon era, deriving parametric measuring rules universally applied in East Asia to provide basic data useful for heritage conservation.

Advances in historical wood consolidation and conservation materials

Wood is an indispensable renewable material for national economic development. As a bio-organic material, wood is subject to deterioration due to climatic, biological, and chemical factors, which greatly limit the advantages of wood products and increase the difficulty of conserving historical wood. To preserve the historical and cultural heritage, extend the historical life of ancient wooden structures, and promote the efficient and sustainable utilization of wood resources, this paper provides an overview of the main degradation and destruction forms and biochemical changes of wood in ancient architecture, unearthed relics, and antique ship wood from the perspective of wooden structure, historical applications, and their forms of destruction. The conservation strategies and consolidation methods of ancient wood are reviewed, with emphasis on the summary and analysis of the properties and uses of different consolidation materials and their methodological characteristics for the conservation of historical wood. In the context of the development of biomaterials, polymer chemistry and nanotechnology, biomass nanocomposites are applied gradually in the field of consolidation. To provide a strong basis for the effective use of reinforced wood, this paper presents the theoretical foundation for the research and development of green, efficient, and environmentally friendly wood consolidation and protection technologies.

WOODEN CHURCHES OF THE CHERNIHIV REGION AS MEMBERSHIPS OF HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

The revival of the spiritual traditions of the Ukrainian people contributes to the interest strengthening in the spiritual heritage, among which wooden churches occupy an important place. The article examines the wooden temples of Chernihiv region as components of the cultural and historical heritage. It has been established that 47 wooden temples are currently functioning in the territory of Chernihiv region. The authors compiled a list of wooden churches in the section of the administrative districts of the region and analyzed the features of their distribution. It has been established that the majority of wooden churches are common in Chernihiv and Koriuka administrative districts, which are located in the northern and north-western parts of the region. The grouping of monuments of wooden architecture of Chernihiv region according to the time of construction was carried out. The vast majority of wooden churches in Chernihiv region belong to the 18th-19th centuries. A significant number of wooden churches in the region were destroyed at the beginning of the 20 th century. Based on the compiled list of destroyed temples of this period, it was established that the largest number of temples were destroyed in the Novgorod-Siversky and Chernihiv districts. Unfortunately, the process of destruction of temples continues. Most recently, the Uspenska Church (Kobyzhcha village), the Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin (Korynetske village) burned down. At the same time, there is a revival of the traditions of wooden church architecture. There are newly built wooden church buildings on the territory of the region, which date back to the 21st century.The following churches have been characterized: the Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin (Haivoron village), Church of the Dormition of the Blessed Virgin (Svarychivka village), the Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin (Synyavka village) as the oldest churches of Chernihiv region, Troitska (Novy Bilous village) as an example of the Chernihiv-Siver school of monumental architecture; Georgiyivska (Sedniv town) as an example of monumental wooden buildings of the Left Bank of Ukraine of the Baroque period; Mykolayivska (Novgorod-Siverskyi city) as an example of wooden baroque churches of Chernihiv region; Uspenska (Voloskivtsi village) as an example of Cossack wooden architecture of the Left Bank of the XVII-XVIII centuries; Uspenska (Sylchenkove village) as an example of a religious building in the "parish" style. The wooden churches of Chernihiv region as components of the cultural and historical heritage are of direct interest both to researchers of the cultural heritage of the region and to the general population. A map of the location of the existing and lost wooden churches of the region was made. The opportunities for the development of religious tourism, based on the presence of a significant number of sacred objects, were analyzed.
 Key words: Chernihiv region, historical and cultural heritage, sacred objects, wooden churches.

Scandinavia in Research on Slavic Wooden Architecture: Inspiration, Point of Reference and Part of Imagined Pasts

ABSTRACT Based on texts from art history and ethnology, this paper examines three aspects of Scandinavia’s role in studying the wooden architecture of the Slavs up to 1945. First, it is pointed out that Dahl’s book, published in 1837, gave the decisive impetus to this research tradition. Second, the article shows how the early works on Norwegian stave churches established them as a paradigm of wooden construction and thus as the primary reference for other monuments of this type. Third, attempts to use wooden architecture in incorporating Scandinavia and Slavs into the shared, imagined pasts are presented. These were undertaken mainly by German scholars trying to demonstrate the Germanic roots of Slavic building. Scandinavia played a role in these narratives as the source of the forms taken over by the Slavs or the residuum of the East Germanic artistic traditions influencing the Slavic peoples. In this way, Scandinavian culture, incorporated into the common Germanic heritage, was instrumentalised to legitimise German domination in Central Europe. 1 1 Publication co-financed by the funds granted under the Research Excellence Initiative of the University of Silesia in Katowice.

Classicism in Tyumen wooden architecture late in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Field research

Purpose: To find classical wooden buildings of the 19th and early 20th centuries in Tyumen.Methodology: Architectural and typological analyses of wooden buildings of the 19th and early 20th centuries.Research findings: The materials are developed concerning the current state of the classical wooden buildings in Tyumen, including historical and modern photographs and description of such buildings.Practical implication: The obtained results can be used to prepare lectures, reports and communications on the history of architecture in Siberia.Value: The full-scale studies of classical buildings underlie further research of wooden objects of classicism.

BRONISŁAW BULIŃSKI (1934–2021) – 60 LAT W SŁUŻBIE RATOWANIA ZABYTKÓW ARCHITEKTURY DREWNIANEJ

Monuments of wooden architecture in Poland are appreciated by art historians, and the most valuable of them have been placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. These include sites that Bronisław Buliński of Jaroslaw, who operated a specialist conservation company for many years, was involved in rescuing and preserving. His talent, knowledge and commitment enabled the restoration of many wooden churches and orthodox churches in south-eastern Poland.

Evaluating environmental factors using microclimate survey and computer fluid dynamics analysis of Korean traditional wooden architectural cultural heritage: focusing on the Kim Myeong-KwanGotaek

Preservation of traditional wooden buildings is important to extend their life and to adapt them to modern society. Wood can be subject to decay, cracking, and discoloration when exposed to various climatic environmental factors, such as moisture and temperature. These issues can be particularly problematic for wooden architecture because they can compromise the durability of the building and reduce its aesthetic appeal. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the microclimate environment of Kim Myeong-Kwan Gotaek, a wooden building important to the cultural heritage of Korea, using climate measurement equipment and computational fluid dynamics modeling. The results showed that relative humidity changes according to wind velocity and temperature. Therefore, heritage managers should aim to allow air to circulate inside such buildings as an effective strategy for preventing the decay of wooden architecture. The study provides valuable insights into how to preserve and extend the life of traditional wooden buildings. Our findings highlight the importance of developing practical measures based on analyses of the natural environment to protect such culturally important building for posterity.