Probability Of Women Research Articles

Contraceptive Failure in the United States: Estimates from the 2006-2010 National Survey of Family Growth.

CONTEXTContraceptive failure rates measure a woman's probability of becoming pregnant while using a contraceptive. Information about these rates enables couples to make informed contraceptive choices. Failure rates were last estimated for 2002, and social and economic changes that have occurred since then necessitate a reestimation.METHODSTo estimate failure rates for the most commonly used reversible methods in the United States, data from the 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth were used; some 15,728 contraceptive use intervals, contributed by 6,683 women, were analyzed. Data from the Guttmacher Institute's 2008 Abortion Patient Survey were used to adjust for abortion underreporting. Kaplan‐Meier methods were used to estimate the associated single‐decrement probability of failure by duration of use. Failure rates were compared with those from 1995 and 2002.RESULTSLong‐acting reversible contraceptives (the IUD and the implant) had the lowest failure rates of all methods (1%), while condoms and withdrawal carried the highest probabilities of failure (13% and 20%, respectively). However, the failure rate for the condom had declined significantly since 1995 (from 18%), as had the failure rate for all hormonal methods combined (from 8% to 6%). The failure rate for all reversible methods combined declined from 12% in 2002 to 10% in 2006–2010.CONCLUSIONSThese broad‐based declines in failure rates reverse a long‐term pattern of minimal change. Future research should explore what lies behind these trends, as well as possibilities for further improvements.

Fertility decisions and alternative types of childcare

Increasing population age and low fertility rates, which characterize most modern societies, compromise the balance between people who can participate in the labor market and people who need care. This is a demographic and social issue that is likely to grow in importance for future generations. It is therefore crucial to understand what factors can positively influence fertility decisions. Policies related to the availability and costs of different kinds of childcare (e.g. formal care, grandparents, childminders) should be considered and promoted after an evaluation of their effects on the probability of women having children.

Peacekeeping, Compliance with International Norms, and Transactional Sex in Monrovia, Liberia

AbstractUnited Nations policy forbids its peacekeepers and other personnel from engaging in transactional sex (the exchange of money, favors, or gifts for sex), but we find the behavior to be very common in our survey of Liberian women. Using satellite imagery and GPS locators, we randomly selected 1,381 households and randomly sampled 475 women between the ages of eighteen and thirty. Using an iPod in private to preserve the anonymity of their responses, these women answered sensitive questions about their sexual histories. More than half of them had engaged in transactional sex, a large majority of them (more than 75 percent) with UN personnel. We estimate that each additional battalion of UN peacekeepers caused a significant increase in a woman's probability of engaging in her first transactional sex. Our findings raise the concern that the private actions of UN personnel in the field may set back the UN's broader gender-equality and economic development goals, and raise broader questions about compliance with international norms.

Social constraints and women's education: Evidence from Afghanistan under radical religious rule

We analyze how growing up under Taliban rule affects Afghan women's educational attainments and subsequent labor market and fertility outcomes. While in power from 1996 to 2001, the Taliban ruled a large portion of the Afghan territory and introduced a ban on girls’ education. Using data from the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment survey, we rely on the fact that, depending on their year of birth and province of residence, individuals differed in the number of years they were exposed to the Taliban government while of school age. Our difference-in-differences estimates show that an additional year of exposure to the Taliban occupation while of school age reduces a woman's probability of completing basic education by about two percentage points. The effects on educational outcomes are larger in Pashtun districts and rural areas. These findings are not due to the 1992 introduction of the provisional Islamist government that preceded the Taliban, cultural differences related to ethnicity, or varying emigration rates across provinces. The estimates are robust to differences across provinces in the number of violent events before, during, and after the Taliban occupation. Women exposed to the Taliban’s radical religious rule while they were of school age are also less likely to be employed outside of the household and more likely to have an agricultural job within the household. For fertility choices, exposure to the Taliban occupation increases total number of children and lowers age at first marriage. We discuss our empirical findings against theoretical economic literature on radical religious groups (e.g., Iannaccone, 1992; Berman, 2000).

Playing the Boys Game: Golf Buddies and Board Diversity

We study the participation of women in golf, a predominately male social activity, and its influence on their likelihood of serving on a board of directors. Exploiting a novel dataset of all golfers in Singapore, we find that woman golfers enjoy a 54% higher likelihood of serving on a board relative to male golfers. A woman's probability of serving on the board in a large firm or in a predominately male industry increases by 117% to 125% when she plays golf. Joining the boy's informal network appears to facilitate women's entrance or success in the executive labor market.

Golf Buddies and Board Diversity

We study the participation of women in golf, a predominately male social activity, and its influence on their likelihood of serving on a board of directors. Exploiting a novel dataset of all golf games in Singapore, we find that woman golfers enjoy a 54% higher likelihood of serving on a board relative to male golfers. A woman's probability of serving on the board in a large firm or in a predominately male industry increases by 117% to 125% when she plays golf. In summary, our results suggest that "playing the boys game" facilitates women's directorships in publicly-traded firms.

The Link Between Community-Based Violence and Intimate Partner Violence: the Effect of Crime and Male Aggression on Intimate Partner Violence Against Women.

Both intimate partner violence (IPV) and community violence are prevalent globally, and each is associated with serious health consequences. However, little is known about their potential links or the possible benefits of coordinated prevention strategies. Using aggregated data on community violence from the São Paulo State Security Department (INFOCRIM) merged with WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence data, random intercept models were created to assess the effect of crime on women’s probability of experiencing IPV. The association between IPV and male aggression (measured by women’s reports of their partner’s fights with other men) was examined using logistic regression models. We found little variation in the likelihood of male IPV perpetration related to neighborhood crime level but did find an increased likelihood of IPV experiences among women whose partners were involved in male-to-male violence. Emerging evidence on violence prevention has suggested some promising avenues for primary prevention that address common risk factors for both perpetration of IPV and male interpersonal violence. Strategies such as early identification and effective treatment of emotional disorders, alcohol abuse prevention and treatment, complex community-based interventions to change gender social norms and social marketing campaigns designed to modify social and cultural norms that support violence may work to prevent simultaneously male-on-male aggression and IPV. Future evaluations of these prevention strategies should simultaneously assess the impact of interventions on IPV and male interpersonal aggression.

Firm Performance and Women on the Board: Evidence from Spanish Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises

ABSTRACTThis study examines gender diversity on boards of directors in a sample of nonfinancial Spanish small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) for 2003–8, finding that the probability of women on the board increases with firm performance, defined as return on assets, and family ownership, but diminishes with corporate ownership and firm risk. It also finds, when examining the full sample, a positive effect of the presence of women board members on firm performance. The study also obtains a similar positive effect in most subsamples, including in firms with corporate ownership, where family connections play less role in the election of board members, and in firms in the secondary and tertiary sectors, which are characterized by having greater proximity to final consumers than those in the primary sector.

El modelo de salarización en el mercado laboral gallego. Influencia del género

Purpose: We study the effects of personal features in the Galician labour market, as both self-employed people and employees who work for a firm. Design/methodology/ approach : We propose a wage model to estimate the probability of a person in working age being employee who works for a firm. After the model parameter estimation through binary logistic regression, we estimate the conditional probability to be an employee who works for a firm for different personal features. We do this to evaluate the real effect of personal features in the person role in the labour market, as employee who works for a firm or self-employed person. Findings and originality/value: The probability to be an employee who works for a firm depends on the gender. The greater age, the lower is the probability of men and women that they will be employees who work for a firm. The probability of men to work for a firm is the same to all family size, whereas this probability for women is lower if the family size gests bigger. The greater family income, the lower is the probability of men and women to work for a firm, but the percentages are different. Research limitations/implications: This paper has been made during a moment of sustained economic growth. So, future researches could study the effect of the economic cycle in this topic. Practical implications: The gender differences affects to the labour market. Originality/value: This study considers as the most important variable the gender, and the effect of other explanatory variables on the different probabilities to be a n employee who works for a firm change depending on the gender. We propose a new way to create the variable corrected household income.

Impact of Media on Domestic Violence Norms: Evidence from India

Greater access to media may influence norms about domestic violence. It may lead to greater acceptance of violence (due to an increase in the incidence of violence) or to lower acceptance due to a change in gender norms. Applying a difference-in-differences methodology to the NFHS, India (1998-99 and 2005-06), we find evidence that switching into regularly accessing television and radio over time has a small but statistically significant association with reduction in the probability of women accepting domestic violence. This suggests that increasing access to media may lead to greater empowerment of women in India.

Women on Italian Bank Boards: Are They 'Gold Dust'?

Italy ranks among EU countries with the fewest women on bank boards. Using a rich dataset on Italian banks that combines individual data on bank governance with different measures of performance and risk, this paper analyses the determinants of the gender gap in top positions. Econometric results suggest that there is a “second glass ceiling” as they confirm a significantly lower probability of women holding top decision-making positions (Chairman, CEO, General Manager), other individual characteristics and bank features being equal. Moreover, results show that the number of women at the top is greater a) in banks belonging to the major banking groups, with larger and younger boards; and b) in banks that are more cost efficient or in those with a larger share of risky loans in the past (in need of restructuring). Preliminary evidence from performance equations suggests that the presence of women is negatively correlated with indicators of ex post riskiness, implying that credit policies are more stringent when women are on the board, possibly due to their higher risk aversion.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Lymphedema After Breast Cancer: A Population‐Based Study

To examine factors associated with variations in diagnosis and rehabilitation treatments received by women with self-reported lymphedema resulting from breast cancer care. A large, population-based, prospective longitudinal telephone survey. California, Florida, Illinois, and New York. Elderly (65+ years) women identified from Medicare claims as having had an incident breast cancer surgery in 2003. Not applicable. Self-reported incidence of lymphedema symptoms, formal diagnosis of lymphedema, treatments for lymphedema. Of the 450 breast cancer survivors with lymphedema who participated in the study, 290 (64.4%) were formally diagnosed with the condition by a physician. An additional 160 (35.6%) reported symptoms consistent with lymphedema (ie, arm swelling on the side of surgery that is absent on the contralateral arm) but were not formally diagnosed. Of those who reported being diagnosed by a physician, 39 (13.4%) received complete decongestive therapy that included multiple components of treatment (ie, manual lymphatic drainage, bandaging with short stretch bandages, the use of compression sleeves, skin care, and remedial exercises); 24 (8.3%) were treated with manual lymphatic drainage only; 162 (55.9%) used bandages, compression garments, or a pneumatic pump only; 8 (2.8%) relied solely on skin care or exercise to relieve symptoms; and 65 (22.4%) received no treatment at all. Multivariate regressions revealed that race (African American), lower income, and lower levels of social support increased a woman's probability of having undiagnosed lymphedema. Even when they were formally diagnosed, African American women were more likely to receive no treatment or to be treated with bandages/compression only rather than to receive the multimodality, complete decongestive therapy. Lymphedema is a disabling chronic condition related to breast cancer treatment. Our results suggest that a substantial proportion of persons reporting symptoms were not formally diagnosed with the condition, thereby reducing their opportunity for treatment. The variation in rehabilitation treatments received by women who were formally diagnosed with the condition by a physician suggests that lymphedema might not have been optimally addressed in many cases despite the availability of effective interventions.

HOW DOES THE SPREAD OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLING INFLUENCE THE FERTILITY TRANSITION? EVIDENCE FROM RURAL NEPAL

From 1996 to 2006, Nepal experienced a substantial fertility decline, with the total fertility rate dropping from 4.6 to 3.1 births per woman. This study examines the associations between progress towards universal primary and secondary schooling and fertility decline in rural Nepal. Several hypotheses regarding mechanisms through which education affects current fertility behaviour are tested, including: the school environment during women's childhood; current availability of schools; knowledge of educational costs; and women's own educational attainment. Data for the analysis come from the 2003-04 Nepal Living Standards Survey, a nationally representative random sample of households, which includes detailed data on fertility, household expenditure, educational attainment, demographic characteristics and the use of social services. Census and administrative data are also used to construct district-level gross enrolment ratios for primary and secondary schools during the women's childhood. Discrete dependent variable modelling techniques are used to estimate the effects of the following variables on the probability of women giving birth in a given year: district-level gross enrolment ratios for primary and secondary schools during women's childhood; having had a child previously in school; women's own educational level; current school availability; and other covariates. Separate models are estimated for the overall sample of rural women of reproductive age, and for parity-specific sub-samples. The results suggest that district-level gross enrolment ratios for secondary schools and, in some instances, having had a previous child enrolled in school are significant determinants of fertility in rural areas. These results are highly independent of women's own educational levels. Overall, the results suggest that, in the rural Nepal context, mass schooling influences the fertility transition through both community- and household-level pathways.

Factors Influencing Prenatal Screening for Down’s Syndrome

This article attempts to identify the factors that influence prenatal screening uptake. About 1400 postdelivery, still-hospitalized women in 15 hospitals in Zhejiang Province were surveyed from November to December 2007. Univariate analysis was used to describe screening uptake and compare respondents with different characteristics. Stepwise logistic regression (forward) was then used to assess the relative strength of those influencing factors. It was found that 49.7% of the respondents received maternal serum prenatal screening. The factors that influenced prenatal screening service utilization included place of residence (urban vs countryside), migrant versus nonmigrant status, attitudes toward screening, frequency of routine prenatal checkups, and doctor's advice. Migrants had a lower probability of getting screened than permanent residents (odds ratio = 0.456; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.31, 0.68). The screening uptake probability of women with doctor's advice was 12 times as great as that of women without doctor's advice (95% CI = 7.91, 18.69).

Abstract B62: The impact of family structure on mammography utilization.

Abstract Introduction: Screening mammography is universally recognized as the most effective screening tool for breast cancer. The current study examines the impact of family structure on regular mammography utilization. First, it evaluates whether the presence of dependent children in a household affect a woman's mammography behaviors. The analyses empirically identify the magnitude and the direction of any systematic differences in screening between women who do and do not have dependent children at home, and factors associated with receipt of screening in these populations. The study then examines whether the presence of a partner in the home modifies the relationship between dependent children and mammography utilization. Methods: The sample for the study consists of a subsample of the participants in the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) in 2010. Data collection for NHIS follows a cross-section design with households as the unit of analysis. In 2010, 27,000 individuals answered questions on cancer screening behaviors. Of the participants, 8,968 women over the age of 40 answered questions on breast cancer screening behaviors. The NHIS also contains individual demographic information including age, education, income, race, and ethnicity, as well as household demographic information. A logistic regression model evaluated the impact of family structure on a woman's probability of regular mammography utilization. A second model examined the interactions between predictor variables. Results: The presence of a partner in the household significantly predicts mammography use. Women with a partner in the home have odds that are 17% higher than the odds for their single counterparts of reporting receiving mammography. The result is statistically significant at the 0.01 level. Age significantly predicts mammography utilization. Women ages 50-64 years have odds of recommended mammography receipt that are 57% higher than the odds for women ages 40-49 years. Despite the significant findings for age and the presence of a partner, the presence of dependent children in the household did not significantly impact rates of mammography. The interaction term for middle age and dependent children in the household, as well as the interaction term for having dependent children and a partner in the household, was not significant. However, when compared to younger women without dependent children in the household, women over 65 years old with dependent children in the household were significantly less likely to receive mammography according to screening recommendations. Conclusion: While age, education, household income, and the presence of a partner in the household significantly predicted mammography utilization, women with children in the household did not utilize mammography at statistically different rates than women residing in households without dependent children. However, for women ages 65 and older, dependent children residing in the household significantly negatively predicted the receipt of a mammogram. The hypothesized relationship of caregiving demands for dependent children competing with breast cancer screening was not supported by the findings of logistic regression analysis, but caregiving demands for women ages 65 and older may help to explain the finding of an interaction between older age and dependent children in the household. Citation Format: Katelyn Ruth Holmes. The impact of family structure on mammography utilization. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2012 Oct 27-30; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21(10 Suppl):Abstract nr B62.

Abstract B87: Factors associated with mammography screening in cities of four contiguous U.S. states whose 2010 mammography rates for women aged 40 and older ranged from 63.8 to 75.2 percent.

Abstract Objectives: To evaluate access to care, socio-economic status (SES), and other demographic factors at regional and individual levels that predict the probability of women 40 and older getting mammography screening for breast cancer within the previous two years in cities of Idaho, which has the lowest mammography rates nationally, and contiguous states of Washington, Montana and North Dakota. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 2010 Center for Disease Control (CDC) Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) individual survey data for women 40 and over residing in cities of Idaho, Washington, Montana, and North Dakota. Regional characteristics for cities within each state included a created variable of the sum of general and OB/GYN physicians divided by the civil population to represent provider density and 2010 American Community Survey demographic data from the US census spatially linked to the study area using ArcGIS. Results: Having a personal doctor was significantly associated with having a mammogram within the previous two years for women 40 and older in all but one city. Controlling for socio-demographic variables, women 40 and older who had a routine check-up within last 2 years had greater odds of having timely mammography for all cities. The provider density was significantly associated with mammography in the previous two years only in cities in Idaho, which had the lowest mammography rates nationally. Women 40 and older in cities with higher SES (income >50K, high school education or greater) had greater odds of having a mammogram within the previous two years in cities of Idaho, N. Dakota and Washington, but not Montana. Conclusions: State-wide policies directed at improving mammography should include an effort to establish a relationship with a medical care provider. Citation Format: Ann M. Han, Shwetha Sequeira, Loretta Berger. Factors associated with mammography screening in cities of four contiguous U.S. states whose 2010 mammography rates for women aged 40 and older ranged from 63.8 to 75.2 percent. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2012 Oct 27-30; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21(10 Suppl):Abstract nr B87.

Factors influencing risk reduction surgery among BRCA mutation carriers: A qualitative analysis.

53 Background: Women known to carry deleterious mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 have a substantially increased lifetime risk to develop breast and ovarian cancer. Current risk management options include increased surveillance, chemoprevention and risk reducing surgery. Several studies have quantitatively evaluated the reasoning of high risk women for electing surgical intervention, noting mutation carrier status as a significant, but not sole rationale for this decision. The decision for surgery has also been associated with family cancer history, anxiety, demographics, healthcare setting and prior counseling. More insights regarding factors influencing women’s choice for risk reduction are needed. Methods: To further assess factors influencing the decision to have risk reduction surgery among women in a community hospital system, 129 BRCA mutation carriers in a community-based genetic counseling program were invited to participate in a qualitative study using questionnaires. A thematic analysis was performed by two independent reviewers on open dialogue responses. Results: Of the 59 respondents, 54 completed the question specifically addressing factors regarding the decision on surgery. Of them, 32 opted for mastectomy, salpingo-oophorectomy or both and 22 opted against surgical risk reduction. Themes emerging in support of surgery included: vicarious experience attributable to a strong family history of cancer; desire for control over risk through surgical intervention; high risk perception; co-morbidities; desire for living, regarding longevity and for loved ones; fear of cancer; and skepticism related to cancer detection methods. For women opting against surgery, themes included: co-morbidities; age (too old/young); incomplete childbearing; logistics (scheduling, finances); lack of disease; and skepticism in effectiveness of surgery. Conclusions: While various factors have been studied regarding the association with or probability of women’s decisions for risk reduction surgery, a deeper comprehension of women’s reasoning can be attained through qualitative analysis. This understanding may enhance health care providers’ ability to counsel women regarding this choice.

Social capital and female entrepreneurship in rural regions: Evidence from Vietnam

An emerging literature suggests that distressed regions tend to be characterized by strong social structures that may be mobilized as social capital for entrepreneurial activities. This paper examines the role of social capital on female entrepreneurship (measured by self-employment) in two distressed regions in Northern Vietnam. Social capital is investigated at two geographical scales, namely the micro (family), and the macro (Women's Union). The role of market access is also highlighted given the geographically disadvantaged location of the regions. Logistic regressions based on survey data indicate that family social capital increases the women's probability of becoming entrepreneurs but institutional social capital has the opposite effect. As part of family social capital, children and male family members contribute to labor, income and community networks. The Women's Union, on the other hand, is overly embedded at Vinh Loc resulting in negative network externalities. Distance to public markets significantly raises the probability of female entrepreneurship. Finally access to capital, that is the number of micro-finance loans and minimum loan size have a positive effect.

Trends in life expectancy by education in Norway 1961–2009

Educational attainment and longevity are strongly related. Large population studies covering long periods to provide evidence of trends in educational inequalities regarding life expectancy are scarce though, especially prior to the 1980s. Our objective was to document changes in life expectancy by education in Norway in the period 1961-2009, and to determine whether the patterns differ between sexes. This is a register-based population study of all Norwegian residents over 34 years, with data from the National Central Population Registry and the National Education Database. For each calendar year during 1961-2009, death rates by 1 year age groups were calculated separately for each sex and three educational categories (primary, secondary and tertiary). Annual life tables were used to calculate life expectancy at age 35 (e ( 35 )) and survival probability for the three age-intervals 35-44, 45-64, and 65-90. All education groups increased their e ( 35 ) over time, but inequalities in e ( 35 ) between tertiary and primary educational categories widened 5.3 years for men and 3.2 years for women during the study period. The probability for women with primary education to survive to age 64 did not improve from 1961 to 2009. The gain in life expectancy lagged about 10 years in lower compared to higher education groups which might suggest that improvements in life sustaining factors reach different segments of the population at different times. The widening of the gap seems to have partly tapered off over the last two decades, and the changes in life expectancy should be followed carefully in the future to document the development.

The Impact of Education and Occupation on Temporary and Permanent Work Incapacity

This paper investigates whether education and working in a physically demanding job causally impact temporary work incapacity, i.e. sickness absence, and permanent work incapacity, i.e. the inflow to disability via sickness absence. Our contribution is to allow endogeneity of both education and occupation by estimating a quasi-maximum-likelihood discrete factor model. Data on sickness absence and disability spells for the population of older workers come from the Danish administrative registers for 1998-2002. We generally find an independent role of both education and occupation on temporary work incapacity only. Having at least primary education reduces women's (men's) probability of temporary work incapacity by 16% (38%) while working in a physically demanding job increases it by 37% (26%). On the other hand, conditional on sickness absence, the effects of education and occupation on permanent work incapacity are generally insignificant.