Women's Intercollegiate Research Articles

Men's Versus Women's Collegiate Basketball Customers: Attitudinal Favorableness and the Environment

This article sheds light on how fans, as consumers of sports, perceive environmental factors at collegiate sporting events and how these consumer perceptions relate to positive affect toward the event for men's versus women's intercollegiate basketball customers in the USA. Gaining a deeper understanding of environmental factors and their relation to attitudinal favorableness is important as sports marketers continue to strive to satisfy sports consumers better. This work is especially important because environmental factors are often under the control of sports marketers — as opposed to uncontrollable factors such as winning percentage and player personnel. A mail survey was distributed to exiting customers at four basketball games at a large northwestern US university (two men's games and two women's games, n = 759). The overall favorableness of women's basketball customers exceeded the overall favorableness of men's customers on environmental factors tested. Women's customers placed more emphasis on atmospheric factors such as the courteousness of staff as well as facility and hospitality factors such as seating and concessions in rating their overall favorableness. Men's customers emphasized secondary entertainment factors, such as the band, as important environmental sources of favorableness.

INSTITUTIONAL DIFFUSION ACROSS CONTESTED TERRAIN: THE SPREAD OF WOMEN'S INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS, 1973-1999.

This research explores diffusion within contexts marked by strong interinstitutional conflict. We examine how newly prescribed institutional practices spread in pluralistic institutional contexts, where entrenched institutional elements complicate or oppose their diffusion. Our empirical study traces the spread of women's intercollegiate athletic programs among NCAA division I institutions over the past three decades. Social and legal developments beginning in the early 1970s provided a strong impetus for universities to add women's sports teams. However, their movement toward compliance with these new expectations was critically affected by pre-existing institutions governing the structure and operation of (men's) intercollegiate athletics. We document the rate and extent of women's sports adoption and identify organizational, interorganizational, and field level factors that affected their spread. Findings show that regulative and normative field level forces, direct linkages to these forces, interorganizational relationships, and local resource and institutional environments are especially critical in driving diffusion across contested institutional terrain. Our findings have implications for understanding diffusion in contested institutional environments, and for the broader bodies of thought on institutionalization and institutional change.

Eye injuries in women's lacrosse players.

To determine the prevalence of eye injuries among intercollegiate women's lacrosse players as well as the level of play, specific play settings, and particular mechanisms associated with these injuries. Anonymous, retrospective, survey. Intercollegiate lacrosse tournament. Collegiate and postcollegiate women's lacrosse players. Self-reports of eye injuries, injury circumstances, treatment received, playing time missed, and continuing problems were recorded. Surveys were collected from 667 players from 34 teams (83% of players listed on rosters). A total of 125 injuries were reported among 84 players (12.6%). Injuries occurred equally in high school and college. Athletes were injured most frequently in games (41 injuries) and practices (38 injuries), with 17 players injured during the off-season. Several mechanisms of injury were noted. Fifty-three women sustained injuries requiring medical attention. Of those athletes injured, 23 missed 1-5 days and 9 players missed more than 5 days. Four athletes (4.8%) reported residual problems from an eye injury sustained while playing lacrosse. Eye injuries are occurring more frequently than current surveillance data suggest. Because injuries are seen at all levels of play, in many different situations, and by multiple mechanisms, mandatory eyewear is needed to prevent serious eye injuries in women's lacrosse.

Current Activity Patterns of Women Intercollegiate Athletes of the Late 1960’s and 1970’s

The purpose of this study was to describe (1) the current physical activity (PA) levels of women who were among the earliest competitors in organized intercollegiate sports during the late 1960s and 1970s. Activity was determined using the Godin Leisure Time Questionnaire. Of the 103 subjects, 45% reported participation in strenuous activity (MET level 9), and 41% reported participation in moderate activity (MET level 5) more than 3 times per week. The majority of women often (50%) or sometimes (38%) participated in activity long enough to work up a sweat. Only 12 % reported never engaging in activity long enough to work up a sweat. Most women (66%) currently participate in physical activity to gain health or fitness or for recreation. A much smaller percentage (13%) still enjoys competition. Most women (60%) performed these activities alone while only 3% participated in group activities. Most (73%) indicated that the opportunity to participate in their college sport does not currently exist, while 27% indicated that they still participate. Reasons for not participating included no program available (27%), musculo-skeltal problems (15%), no desire (6%) and that their college sport was too vigorous (3%). The most common activities in which women currently participate are golf, running, jogging and walking and tennis. A large majority (97%) indicated previous intercollegiate participation had very positively influenced their current participation in physical activity.Unlike the majority of their peers, this population of women who competed in the early intercollegiate athletics has tended to stay active in spite of decreasing opportunities to engage in team and other physical activities after college and as they age.

Part VIII: A New Agenda (1980–1990)

This is the eighth of nine segments designed to commemorate the NAGWS Centennial, 1889–1999. This segment will focus on the accomplishments of ten past-presidents who served from 1980 to 1990. The 1980s saw a major setback to Title IX, when the Grove City College decision interpreted Title IX as applying only to the specific program or activity earmarked for federal assistance, and not to the institution or school as a whole (Mottinger, 1988). NAGWS actively lobbied for the passage of the Civil Rights Restoration Act. This act would reinterpret Title IX more broadly, as Congress had originally intended, prohibiting educational institutions from discriminating based on sex. In 1983, the NCAA co-opted the AIAW (which had been born from NAGWS in 1979) and began to oversee women's intercollegiate athletics. As the last AIAW presidents, the following individuals placed their mark on the shaping of women's intercollegiate athletics: Christine Grant (1980–1981), Donna Lopiano (1981–1982), Merrily Baker (1982–1983), and Virginia Hunt (1983 elect). With the NCAA takeover of intercollegiate sport for women, challenges continued for the control of the rules for girls’ and women's sport. By the end of the 1980s. NAGWS stopped publishing the rules for women's basketball. The National Federation published the high school rules, while the NCAA published the collegiate rules (Hult. 1991). In 1983, NAGWS, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), and the Women's Sports Foundation sponsored a major conference, “The New Agenda: A Blueprint for the Future of Women's Sports,” which led to the creation of National Girls and Women in Sports Day. NAGWS continued its strong bond with the USOC and the National Governing Bodies. By the end of the decade. NAGWS was redefining its role in equity for girls and women in sport. With a steady decrease in the number of women in leadership positions in sport, NAGWS was ready to focus on increasing female leadership in the athletic arena.—Shawn Ladda, Manhattan College, Feature Editor.

Part VII: The Age of Equity (1970–1980)

This is the seventh of nine segments designed to commemorate the NAGWS Centennial, 1889–1999. This segment will focus on the accomplishments of ten past-presidents who served from 1970 to 1980. During this period, the Division of Girls and Women in Sport (DGWS) became the National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS), which allowed for greater independence from AAHPER. The most significant happening in the 1970s was the enactment of the Educational Amendments of 1972 (Title IX). NAGWS lobbied Congress to strive for equity (Hult, 1991), thereby reinforcing the urgency of equal opportunity. Title IX continues to have a tremendous impact on increasing opportunities for girls and women in sport. Another piece of legislation, the Amateur Sports Act, passed in 1978, had a substantial effect on opportunities for women within the Olympic movement. In addition, a series of coaching clinics continued to train women to coach and teach highly skilled female athletes, while research took a more important focus on the social and psychological aspects of females in sport (Hult, 1991). With the growth of intercollegiate athletics for women occurring at such a rapid puce, the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) was organized in 1971–1972 to replace the CIAW. Both the CIAW and the AIAW were operated under NAGWS auspices. Separate president served for NAGWS and AIAW, working closely in various aspects. “On June 1, 1979, the AIAW established its own legal identity. In doing so, the nation's largest governing organization of intercollegiate athletic programs separated from the NAGWS of AAHPERD, two organizations that had nurtured the foundling women's athletic association through its early years” (“AIAW on Its Own,” 1980). As AIAW presidents, the following individuals helped to shape women's intercollegiate athletics: Carole Oglesby (1972–1973), Carol Gordon (1973–1974), Leotus Morrison (1974–1975), Laurie Mabry (1975–1976), Peggy Burke (1976–1977), Judy Holland (1977–1978), Charlotte West (1978–1979), and Carol Mushier (1979–1980). The 1970s was a decade of rapid increase of female participating in sport. By the end of the decade, with AIAW becoming a separate legal entity, NAGWS relinquished its control over much of intercollegiate sport.—Shawn Ladda, Manhattan College, Feature Editor.

WOMEN, DRUG USE, AND DRUG TESTING

The drug-related attitudes and behaviors of female intercollegiate athletes and their views on drug testing were assessed and contrasted with those of male athletes at the same university. Results indicated that college women athletes' attitudes toward drug use and drug testing correspond to conventional gender-related expectations about drug use among the general population, and so do the attitudes of male college athletes. Women student athletes preferred wine and men preferred beer; more women used coffee and over-the-counter drugs, and more men used tobacco or smokeless tobacco. Marijuana was the most commonly used illegal substance among college athletes. Intercollegiate women held more positive attitudes regarding drug testing than men and felt stronger about the importance of testing for all classes of drugs. Only a minority of male and female college athletes felt that athletes should be tested for the use of alcohol, tobacco, and prescription drugs.

Analysis of Sport Orientation of Female Collegiate Athletes

Scores on three subscales of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire were analyzed to assess whether competitive orientation of 40 female athletes differed from that of 36 nonparticipants and whether competitive orientation differentiated among athletes participating in different sports. Intercollegiate women athletes from three sports (basketball = 12; Softball = 16; and volleyball = 12) and a control group of 36 women who did not participate in athletics were respondents. Scores on Win and Competition significantly discriminated among groups. Scores of the control group were significantly lower than those of each group of athletes. No other comparisons were significant.

Using Cooperative Learning to Enhance the Academic and Social Experiences of Freshman Student Athletes

One hundred seven freshman student athletes in 17 different women's and men's intercollegiate sports were required to attend evening study sessions. The student athletes completed academic assignments and studied for tests primarily in cooperative learning groups. As gauges of the program's impact on the participants, 3 questionnaires were administered to a sample of 50 (25 women and 25 men). The respondents reported that (a) they worked cooperatively on academic assignments, (b) the program staff provided both academic and personal support while structuring and facilitating cooperative learning groups, and (c) they themselves were highly task oriented, confident of their academic ability, and involved in positive and supportive relationships with their fellow participants.

Analysis of body esteem of female collegiate athletes.

Scores on three subscales of the Body Esteem Scale were analyzed for the effect of group participation on body esteem. Intercollegiate women athletes from three sports (basketball, n = 9; volleyball, n = 10; and softball, n = 12) and a control group of 34 women who did not participate in athletics were respondents. Scores on Weight Concern and Physical Condition significantly discriminated between the groups. On Weight Concern the mean of the control group was significantly lower than those of the athletic groups. On Physical Condition the control group mean was significantly lower than that of the basketball group. Other comparisons were not significant.

Differential Media Coverage of Men's and Women's Intercollegiate Basketball: Reflection of Gender Ideology

This study explores the extent to which mass media coverage of men's and women's sport reflect the broader gender ideology of society. Using television coverage of men's and women's intercollegiate basketball as our context and verbal commentary as our text, an attempt was made (1) to identify qualitative differences in the manner in which the men's and women's games were presented by the networks, and, if coverage differences did exist, (2) to identify ideological assumptions which may underlie such differences. Data were derived from a content analysis of 16 televised college basketball games from the 1988-90 seasons. Analyses led to the identification of the following general coverage differences: (a) the men's game and performances were used as a standard of comparison and understanding for the women's game and performances; (b) the women's game was qualified as "women's basketball"; (c) non-parallel and sexist language was used to depict female athletes and their performance; and (d) expectations relative to physicality and athleticism. These findings suggest that the ideology of sport as a male domain is reinforced through differential media coverage of and commentary on men's and women's college basketball.

Injury and disability in matched men's and women's intercollegiate sports.

Eight matched men's and women's intercollegiate varsity teams were studied prospectively for one academic year to determine the incidence of athletic injury and resulting disability. Sports in which both men and women participated in a comparable manner were chosen: basketball, fencing, gymnastics, swimming, tennis, indoor track, outdoor track, and volleyball. Men (232) and women (150) were injured at comparable rates, 42 percent versus 39 percent. When adjusted for exposure time, seven of the eight sports continued to show similar injury rates. Women gymnasts, however, experienced .82 injuries per 100 person-hours of exposure as compared to .21 injuries for the men (p = .0001). Disability was greater in women gymnasts, 7.44 days per 100 person-hours versus 1.15 days for men (p = .0004). Percent of season lost to injury was also greater for women gymnasts. Types and sites of injury were similar for men and women, with sprains and strains accounting for over half of all injuries. We found no evidence for gender differences in matched sports except for gymnastics, in which technically diverse events may have accounted for the differences observed.

Selected kinematic characteristics of intercollegiate women triple jumpers

Eight women triple jump finalists at the 1986 Big Ten Track and Field Championships and 10 women triple jump finalists at the 1986 National Track and Field Competition were filmed during competition. Among selected kinematic characteristics, the following high correlations (r greater than 0.70) were found: the distance of the hop phase correlated highly with the total jump distance; the horizontal position of the center of gravity of the body in relation to the support foot at takeoff correlated highly with the distance of the hop and the jump phases; the horizontal velocity into the step phase correlated highly with the total distance of the jump; the vertical velocity into the hop and step phases correlated highly with the respective phase distance; and there was an inverse correlation between the maximum height of the center of gravity during the flight phase of the step and the total distance. A significant difference was found between men and women triple jumpers in relation to the contribution of the step phase to the total distance of the jump (men, means = 29.5, SD = 1.46; women, means = 26.7, SD = 2.94; P less than 0.05). All remaining relationships among the kinematic variables studied were found to be not significant at P less than 0.05 or were less than r = 0.70. The phase ratios of current women triple jumpers were similar to ratios that have been reported for the novice athlete.

Note: Further Gymnastics

The problem of choosing a lineup to maximize the potential team score in intercollegiate women’s gymnastics is tackled by Ellis and Corn [1984], using a bivalent integer programming formulation. The authors argue that as it is not uncommon for each of the competing teams to score approximately 180 points, and as the winning margin can be less than half a point, the selection of athletes becomes a crucial decision, so that the proposed model could be an invaluable aid to the coach, who has to make the final selection.

A guide to the literature on aggressive behavior

A guide to the literature on aggressive behavior

Note: More Gymnastics

The paper by P. M. Ellis and R. W Corn, “Using bivalent integer programming to select teams for intercollegiate women's gymnastics competition” [1984] has some fascinating aspects and can be used as an illustration for alternative formulations of integer programming problems. The authors observed that it was easy to obtain ILP solutions and that usually the LP solution was also integer. With the formulation presented in this paper it can be shown that (with four all-rounders and four events) there is always an optimum LP solution which satisfies the integer constraints.

Using Bivalent Integer Programming to Select Teams for Intercollegiate Women's Gymnastics Competition

The coach of an intercollegiate women's gymnastics team must choose a lineup to maximize the potential total team score by optimally assigning gymnasts to the different events. Manual computation of total scores possible from several lineups is burdensome. A bivalent integer programming formulation was used to establish the competitive lineup for intercollegiate matches at Utah State.

Reliability and Validity of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale in a Competitive Sport Setting

Interest in the role of self-confidence in sport performance has been high in sport psychology research. A measure to assess general physical self-efficacy has recently been developed, but without application to competitive sport performance. The present study examined the role of general and task-specific self-efficacy in women's intercollegiate gymnastics. It also assessed the reliability and validity of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale in a competitive sport setting. The Physical Self-Efficacy Scale was found to be a reliable and valid instrument for measuring an individual's general physical self-efficacy in sport. However, the task-specific measures of self-efficacy and the gymnast's prediction of how they would perform proved to be much more powerful variables for predicting actual gymnastic performance. The results are discussed in terms of the relationships between different types of self-efficacy and sport performance and the problems associated with self-efficacy measurement.

Causal Relationships among Cohesion, Satisfaction, and Performance in Women's Intercollegiate Field Hockey Teams

The purpose of this study was to examine whether team cohesion in women's intercollegiate field hockey was specifically a cause for or an effect of successful performance and to examine what the cause-effect relationship is between cohesion and satisfaction and satisfaction and performance. A secondary purpose was to compare results from a cross-lagged panel correlation analysis with partial correlations and path analysis of the data. The high and significant individual correlations from cohesion to performance and performance to cohesion, combined with the failure of the cross-lagged correlation to indicate any causal predominance, suggested a circular relationship between cohesion and performance. Examination of the satisfaction correlations suggested that satisfaction may be a mediating variable in the cohesion-performance circular relationship. Support for this model totally broke down when the results from the partial correlations and path analysis of the data were examined. The only causal flow, and this only in a few select circumstances, was from success to increased cohesiveness and greater satisfaction, and from increased cohesiveness to greater satisfaction.

Immediate Effects of Win-Loss on Perceptions of Cohesion in Intramural and Intercollegiate Volleyball Teams

In two separate studies, members of 16 women's intramural volleyball teams (n = 94) and six women's intercollegiate volleyball teams (n = 68) completed pre-and postmatch questionnaires to determine the immediate effects of success-failure on perceptions of cohesion. A 2 × 2 (win-loss × pre-post) MANOVA on seven cohesion items yielded significant win-loss and pre-post main effects, and a significant win-loss by pre-post interaction for intramural teams. Univariate analyses indicated that winners increased and losers decreased in cohesion ratings from pre- to postmatch on three variables: level of teamwork, cohesion, and sense of belonging. Multivariate analyses yielded no significant effects for intercollegiate teams, although a univariate interaction similar to that in intramural teams was found for the cohesion variable. The results suggest that perceptions of cohesion are influenced by the immediate effects of win-loss.