Women In Higher Education Research Articles

Domestic violence against Iranian pregnant adolescents: protective and risk factors.

Domestic violence is an important health, which has serious impacts on women's health. The study aimed to discover the protective and risk factors of domestic violence among pregnant adolescents. In the analytical cross-sectional study, 255 eligible pregnant women aged 14-20 years who have been referred to Al-Zahra Hospital, in northern Iran between September 2020 and March 2022 participated. Demographical characteristics were recorded by a questionnaire. Domestic violence was assessed using the instrument of violence against women. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the basic features of the data. The frequency of physical, emotional, and sexual violence was respectively 13.33%, 23.52%, and 9.01%. The risk factors included the spouse's substance use (OR 2.41, 95% CI 1.25-4.62), spouse's low education (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.12-3.52), spouse's unemployment (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.03-1.57) and domestic violence exposure in childhood (OR 1.85, 95% CI 1.46-2.51). Higher education for women was a protective factor for domestic violence (OR 0.70, 95% CI 0.45-0.83). The education level is a protective factor against domestic violence among pregnant adolescents. These results can help to design the most appropriate prevention programs to reduce the risk factors for violence among pregnant adolescents.

Challenges Faced by Married Muslim Women of Sri Lanka Studying in Higher Education Level

Islam is one of the religions which acknowledges and secure all of the fundamental rights of women including education. According to Islam, education is important and compulsory for both male and female. The aim of this study is to identify the challenges that face married Muslim women at their higher education. The research is descriptive in nature following qualitative approach to collect data with the semi-structured interview. However, support for the education of married women depends upon family attitude, educational status, financial stability and husband viewpoint. Furthermore, commitments of multiple roles and lower level of self-confidence of women are most significant challenges of their education. Especially in Sri Lanka, the traditional families think that higher education of women will affect the morals, confine freedom and make problem in their matrimonial life. It is suggested that researches and seminars are essential to be structured to change the perception of the Muslim society about women’s education in Sri Lanka. The result will be a fact finding to suggest to the policy makers in Sri Lanka on how to tackle the challenges facing married women in their higher education.

Women in academia: an analysis through a scoping review

Changes in higher education, such as the performance measures in research, neoliberalism, the feminist movement, and the COVID-19 pandemic, have challenged women in academia. The incorporation of women in academia is a relatively recent phenomenon. It was only in the middle of the last century that the presence of women in higher education was systematically increasing; however, this increase in women’s participation in Education has not eliminated gender gaps and inequalities. This article shows the results of a scoping review of the scientific literature, which aimed to identify what has been written about women’s experiences in academia during the last decade and determine the knowledge gaps. To this end, three databases, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar, were reviewed for the literature search. As a result, 533 articles were obtained; however, after applying the exclusion criteria, 129 scientific papers were analyzed. The thematic analysis identified five central themes in the last 10 years (difficulties experienced by women academics in their careers; the underrepresentation of women academics; the impact of neoliberalism on the careers of women academics; the facilitating factors in the careers of women academics; and the effect of COVID-19 pandemic on the careers of women academics). Finally, these categories and subcategories shape the challenges women academics face in higher Education and are analyzed and discussed. In conclusion, more than a third of the articles reviewed reflect on the difficulties experienced by female academics in their careers for the decade; however, during the last few years, it is possible to identify articles that address the challenges intensified in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 2018, articles addressing neoliberalism’s effects on female academics’ careers have increased. To a lesser extent, articles addressing aspects that facilitate the development of women’s academic careers are also found. Thus, there is an essential reflection on the challenges and difficulties faced by women academics during their careers.

5 Translating developmental neurotoxicity for the public: A large, international, randomized-control trial investigating children's environmental health literacy

Objective:Exposure to toxic chemicals during early brain development increases the risk of neurodevelopmental problems in children. Parents' and prospective parents' understanding of the impact of toxic chemicals on brain development and the efficacy of translation tools for children's environmental health literacy are poorly understood. We developed and validated a questionnaire, PRevention of Toxic chemicals in the Environment for Children Tool (PRoTECT) to assess knowledge of toxic chemicals and neurodevelopment, intentions to reduce exposures to toxic chemicals, and preferences for actions by government and industry to prevent neurodevelopmental disorders. Using PRoTECT, we surveyed people of child-bearing age across five countries (Canada, United States (US), United Kingdom (UK), India, and Australia) to identify general patterns of responses on this questionnaire by demographic characteristics, including country, age, gender, parental status, pregnancy status, and education. We also employed a randomized control design to examine the efficacy of a knowledge translation video to instill knowledge and prompt behavioral changes to reduce exposures to toxic chemicals immediately following its presentation and after a six-week follow-up period.Participants and Methods:We recruited 15,594 participants, ages 18 to 45, via CloudResearch's Prime Panels between October-December 2021. After completing the PRoTECT survey, participants were randomly assigned to watch the video Little Things Matter: Impact of Toxic Chemicals on Brain Development (i.e., the experimental group) or to serve as the control group. Next, both groups answered a series of questions to assess their knowledge of toxic chemicals, their intentions to reduce exposures to toxic chemicals, and barriers to changing their behaviours. After six-weeks, we recontacted a subset (N=4,842) of participants to repeat PRoTECT and answer the same series of behavioural questions assessing whether they modified any of their behaviours to reduce exposure and why or why not.Results:Most participants (i.e., 75-85%) agreed that toxic chemicals can impact brain development and endorsed preferences (∼85%) for allocating more resources to prevent neurodevelopmental disorders, especially people with higher education, parents and pregnant women, and people who lived in India. Despite this, a large proportion of participants (∼50%) trusted industry and believed that government effectively regulated toxic chemicals. After the six-week follow-up, experimental participants showed greater changes in scores on PRoTECT (i.e., between 5-15% change), indicating greater knowledge about harms posed by toxic chemicals, more intentions to reduce exposure, and stronger preferences for prevention as compared to the control group. Differences were larger among people from the US, those who were more highly educated, and people in their thirties. However, the differences between groups in making behavioural changes to reduce exposures were attenuated at the six-week follow up as compared to baseline. Significant barriers to reduce exposure to toxic chemicals were reported by both groups and included cost, inconvenience, and not knowing how to determine whether a product is non-toxic or where to purchase non-toxic products.Conclusions:We observed greater knowledge and concerns about toxic chemicals among more affluent respondents, pregnant women and parents, and people living in India across both groups. While the video enhanced participants' knowledge about toxic chemicals and intentions to reduce exposure, they indicated that barriers hindered them from making behavioral changes.

Higher education expansion and women’s access to higher education and the labor market: quasi-experimental evidence from Turkey

Higher education expansion and women’s access to higher education and the labor market: quasi-experimental evidence from Turkey

Factors determining the motivation to breastfeed in the Lithuanian female population

Abstract Background The benefits of breastfeeding (BF) are evident for both the baby and the mother, however, in Lithuania, on average, only around 49.3% of infants were breastfed exclusively for up to 6 months between 2017 and 2021. The aim of this study was to evaluate the BF motivation (BM) of mothers and the factors determining it in Lithuania. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in June 2022. A total of 572 women, who were raising an infant aged 2-6 months were anonymously surveyed in Lithuania (response rate 38.9%). BM was evaluated using 24-item scale developed by Kestler-Peleg et al. It was divided into 4 factors using exploratory factor analysis. The sum score, mean, and standard deviation (SD) of the motivation scale was calculated. Relationships between BM and various factors were determined using Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-Wallis, and Spearman's correlation tests. Results It was found that BM of mothers’ was average (69.6 (SD 14.2) out of 96 points). Mothers were most motivated to breastfeed their babies by factors related to their well-being and the health of their baby (3.47 (SD 0.59) out of 4 points), and the least by factors related to the pressure from others (2.23 (SD 0.67) out of 4 points). BM was statistically significantly increased by women's older age, interest in BF, attendance at BF courses, prior decision to breastfeed during pregnancy, greater BF experience, giving birth at the baby friendly hospital, while motivation was decreased by women's higher education, living in a larger city (P < 0.05). Women who have given birth to their first baby and women facing BF problems after childbirth were less motivated to breastfeed (P < 0.05). Conclusions Mothers’ BM was average. In Lithuania, especially in rural areas, it is necessary to increase mothers’ motivation to breastfeed their infants by enhancing their awareness and interest in BF, as well as by encouraging healthcare facilities to adhere to the WHO recommendations for successful BF. Key messages • The motivation of Lithuanian mothers to breastfeed their babies is insufficient. • It depends on women's age, place of residence, self-determination, interest in BF, experience of childbirth and BF, and the nature of the hospital where they gave birth.

Perceived research productivity of women in higher education: An investigation of the impact of COVID-19.

This study focuses on the predictors of women academics' perceived research productivity during the pandemic in Türkiye, by taking the changes in paid and unpaid workload alongside the felt pressure concerning productivity into consideration. Predicting the odds to report an above the mean level of decrease in perceived research productivity, unlike expected, increased housework time and administrative workload presented no statistically significant effect. On the other hand, extended care responsibilities (including but not limited to childcare) and felt pressure concerning research performance during the pandemic strongly predicted a high level of reported decrease in research productivity. Findings highlight that institutional care support mechanisms should be among the primary concerns since the pandemic has made the already existing gender inequalities in academia more visible in terms of the challenges women face in balancing paid and unpaid work. In addition, as excess pressure felt by women academics regarding research performance is linked to a decline in reported productivity, creating a compassionate environment in academia not only in unprecedented circumstances but at all times needs to be priority.

Female education and marriage in Pakistan: The role of financial shocks and marital customs

This project aims to explore the effect of wealth shocks on education and marriage for young women in Pakistan. Financial shocks are used to estimate the probability of dropping out of education and into marriage. Using the Pakistan Rural Household Panel survey for the years 2000–10, the effects of financial shocks on the probability of dropping out of education and into marriage are estimated for boys and girls in rural areas. Second, the returns to education in the marriage market are estimated using information on marital payments of dowry and brideprice. Lastly, the intergenerational effects of women’s increased bargaining power due to marital assets is estimated. The results show wealth shocks do not have a gendered effect on school dropout. Also, adverse shocks during the teenage years do not increase the probability of early marriage. However, this relationship is negative in villages where marital payments are typically higher—that is, marriage costs can delay early marriage in shock-hit households as they are more credit-constrained. Lastly, higher educated women receive more marital assets, which can contribute to increased bargaining power within the marriage. This increased bargaining power also has intergenerational effects on children’s schooling.

The role identities of women middle management academic leaders in STEM higher education

ABSTRACT Despite the increasing number of women in STEM professions and higher education, they are underrepresented in middle management leadership roles. In these roles, they face challenges balancing multiple demands, especially in male-dominated cultures. This research used a life history approach to investigate the role identities of three female middle management leaders in a Qatari university. The Dynamic Systems Model of Role Identity guided the semi-structured interviews where participants shared their past, present, and future stories. The findings revealed the intricate manner in which the participants formed their leadership identities, emphasizing values like motherly care, trust, and respect. Through their goal-oriented self-perception, they fostered collegial support and motivated peers. While formal leadership training was lacking, they leaned on past experiences and family support to handle leadership tasks and life responsibilities. The study recommends better support for women academic leaders.

Gender, Religion and Higher Education: Strategies of Muslim Women Students in India

Social scientists critically examine the role of higher education in women’s empowerment. In the Indian context, gender, religion, caste, class and region are crucial in determining access to education. The gender gap has been a significant obstacle in India’s pursuit of educational goals. The status of Muslim women’s education has been a contested policy from state and community vantage. Prominent scholarly writings argue that Muslim women were even more isolated from the social and cultural changes than their men were and even more invisible in the public arena of society. Their condition is more pathetic in educational and cultural realms. The primary objective of this paper is to empirically outline the negotiation and strategies employed by Muslim women students in negotiating with their families, religion, communities and careers. The study followed qualitative methodology to understand Muslim women’s educational choices, the rationale behind their educational decisions, and their agency in negotiating with their families and the career prospects of young Muslim women. The current paper argues that there is a remarkable growth in the history of women’s education in India, especially after the 90s, which could not change the social structure and social status of women in society in general and Muslim women in particular. Still, the gender differences remained stable in the educational practices, in the families, and even in the equity-minded educational committees. According to various government reports and studies, despite the improvement in the educational enrolment rate of Muslims, the representations of the Muslim community in general and Muslim women, in particular, are minimal in higher education. More than looking at the representation of Muslim women in education institutions, the current paper will analyse the challenges and experiences of Muslim women to reach the secondary and higher secondary levels of education.

Barriers to women’s participation in and contribution to leadership in Ethiopian higher education

Women are underrepresented in senior leadership positions across global higher education and there are different reasons for this. This study examines barriers to women’s leadership development in Ethiopian higher education, with particular attention to the role of national and institutional policies and practices. The study used a phenomenological research design to better understand barriers to women’s leadership development in higher education from the views and experiences of women leaders. Data were generated from 12 women vice presidents and official documents. The participants were drawn from each type and generation of universities that exist in Ethiopian higher education. The findings reveal that although there is an improvement in women’s leadership development in Ethiopian higher education, many glass ceilings remain unbroken. The result also reveals that institutional barriers are considered the greatest, as they also exacerbate sociocultural and personal barriers to women’s leadership development. Although ethnicity is one of the major challenges facing higher education institutions (HEIs) in Ethiopia, it is not identified as a barrier to women’s leadership development. The barriers to women’s leadership are multifaced and addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach and concerted efforts from major stakeholders, especially policymakers. Unless there is a systemic response, women in higher education will continue to struggle in pursuing senior leadership positions.

Educational inequalities in metabolic syndrome prevalence, timing, and duration amongst adults over the life course: a microsimulation analysis based on the lifelines cohort study

BackgroundEducational inequalities in metabolic syndrome (MetS) are a growing public health concern. Intervening on modifiable factors may help reduce these inequalities, but there is a need for evidence on the long-term impact of intervening on these factors. Thus, we simulate the development of educational inequalities in MetS across the life course and assess the impact of intervening on the modifiable factors that contribute to these inequalities.MethodsWe used data from the prospective multigenerational Dutch Lifelines Cohort Study to estimate the required input for a continuous-time microsimulation. The microsimulation projects the development of educational inequalities in MetS between ages 18 and 65, and assesses the potential benefit of intervening on smoking, alcohol use, diet quality, and health literacy.FindingsThe likelihood of ever experiencing MetS between ages 18 and 65 varies from 32.5% among high educated women to 71.5% among low educated men. On average, 27.6% more individuals with low education will ever experience MetS between ages 18 and 65 compared to those with high education. Additionally, individuals with low education generally will develop MetS 2.3 years earlier, and will spend an extra 2.6 years with MetS, compared to individuals with high education. Changes to smoking behaviours in individuals with low education produced the largest effect; it would reduce inequalities in prevalence, timing and duration by an average of 7.5%, 9.5%, and 6.9%, respectively.ConclusionsInterventions targeting the modifiable factors included in this study, especially smoking, could help reduce the estimated educational inequalities in MetS over the life course.

The Intersectional Disadvantages for Disabled Women Students in UK Higher Education

In a recent systemic review of research on Disabled*1 students in Higher Education (HE), Kutscher and Tuckwiller (2019) highlighted the lack of any intersectional examination of disability and argued that research examining the intersections of disability and gender, race, sexuality, et cetera. are urgently needed. In the UK, a House of Lords Committee released a report that highlighted the many disadvantages still faced by Disabled students in UK HE, highlighting issues around access, support, and performance –finding that there is an attainment gap for Disabled students in UK HE (Hector et al., 2020). This article uses intersectionality as critical social theory (Collins, 2019) in the examination of the success (or otherwise) of Disabled women in HE in the UK. Defining “success” as completing a degree and attaining “Good Honours”, the aim is to identify how the success of Disabled women students in the UK compares to non-disabled women, Disabled men, and non-disabled men. The findings suggest that there are intersectional disadvantages for Disabled women students; suggesting that there is an attainment gap for Undergraduate students and differences in the likelihood they continue and gain their intended award at postgraduate taught level. This paper is the first to examine the intersectional effects of gender and disability in UK HE students, and as well demonstrating this it highlights areas for future research.

Paid Parental Leave Reforms and Mothers’ Employment in Austria, France and Hungary

This study focuses on changes in the length of paid parental leave in Austria, France and Hungary between the 1960s and the first decade of the 2000s. Its aim is to analyse to what extent extensions and reductions of the duration of paid parental leave affect mothers’ labour market entry after childbirth. For each country, periods according to the different policy reforms are analysed and data from the Generations and Gender Survey are used to account for changes in mothers’ labour market entry.
 Scholars have argued that too long periods of paid parental leave might act as work-reducing policy in that they hinder women’s labour market entry while short leaves have positive effects on labour market participation and wages. This phenomenon is studied in three countries with very different conciliation policies.
 Results for Austria show that the introduction of more flexibility into the leave legislation in 2008 increased mothers’ relative risks of labour market entry especially among higher educated women. In France, the extension of paid leave for second born children in 1994 reduced labour market entry. We found however, no significant effect of the 1986 reform for third children and the 2004 reform introducing a paid leave of six months for first-born children. In Hungary, labour market entry of mothers was influenced by structural changes which accompanied the political transition of 1989 and resulted in longer leave take up of mothers. Labour market entry before the transition was more intensive than ever since that.
 * This article belongs to a special issue on “Demographic Developments in Eastern and Western Europe Before and After the Transformation of Socialist Countries”.

A tale of three associate professors: A grassroots approach to supporting women in higher education

In higher education, gender imbalances continue to persist, particularly at senior academic levels and in university leadership. To explore practical ways to address this disparity, a grassroots initiative was established at an Australian University in 2015 and has grown into an ecosystem of mentoring and support for career advancement of academic women. Challenges and successes of the initiative from 8 years of operation are presented through a teaching case accompanied by teaching notes, including different benefits of grassroots initiatives for gender equity to both organisation and individuals. JEL Classification: M14, J16

The contribution of work and health-related lifestyle to educational inequalities in physical health among older workers in Germany. A causal mediation analysis with data from the lidA cohort study.

The objective of the study was to investigate the contribution of work factors and health-related lifestyle to educational inequalities in physical health among older workers in Germany by applying causal mediation analysis with longitudinal data. Data from the German lidA study was used. 2653 persons (53% female, 47% male) aged 46 (born 1965) and 52 (born 1959) at baseline were followed up for seven years with exposure and outcome assessments in 2011 (t0), 2014 (t1) and 2018 (t2). The total effect of education on physical health was decomposed into a natural direct effect (NDE) and a natural indirect effect (NIE) by using a sex-stratified causal mediation analysis with an inverse odds weighting approach. Baseline health, partner status and working hours were entered as a first set of mediators preceding the putative mediators of interest. All analyses were adjusted for age and migrant status. Independent of the first set of mediators, work factors explained 21% of educational inequalities in physical health between low and high educated women and 0% comparing moderate versus high educated women. The addition of health behaviors explained further 26% (low vs. high education) and 20% (moderate vs. high education), respectively. Among men, net of the first set of mediators, work factors explained 5% of educational inequalities in physical health between low and high educated and 6% comparing moderate versus high educated persons. Additional 24% (low vs. high education) and 27% (moderate vs. high education) were explained by adding health behaviors to the models. To reduce educational inequalities in physical health among older workers in Germany, interventions to promote healthy behaviors are promising. Improving working conditions is likely an important prerequisite.

The intersection of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status: inequalities in breast and cervical cancer mortality in 20,665,005 adult women from the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort

ABSTRACT Objectives There is limited evidence regarding the impact of race/racism and its intersection with socioeconomic status (SES) on breast and cervical cancer, the two most common female cancers globally. We investigated racial inequalities in breast and cervical cancer mortality and whether SES (education and household conditions) interacted with race/ethnicity. Design The 100 Million Brazilian Cohort data were linked to the Brazilian Mortality Database, 2004–2015 (n = 20,665,005 adult women). We analysed the association between self-reported race/ethnicity (White/‘Parda’(Brown)/Black/Asian/Indigenous) and cancer mortality using Poisson regression, adjusting for age, calendar year, education, household conditions and area of residence. Additive and multiplicative interactions were assessed. Results Cervical cancer mortality rates were higher among Indigenous (adjusted Mortality rate ratio = 1.80, 95%CI 1.39–2.33), Asian (1.63, 1.20–2.22), ‘Parda’(Brown) (1.27, 1.21–1.33) and Black (1.18, 1.09–1.28) women vs White women. Breast cancer mortality rates were higher among Black (1.10, 1.04–1.17) vs White women. Racial inequalities in cervical cancer mortality were larger among women of poor household conditions, and low education (P for multiplicative interaction <0.001, and 0.02, respectively). Compared to White women living in completely adequate (3–4) household conditions, the risk of cervical cancer mortality in Black women with 3–4, 1–2, and none adequate conditions was 1.10 (1.01–1.21), 1.48 (1.28–1.71), and 2.03 (1.56–2.63), respectively (Relative excess risk due to interaction-RERI = 0.78, 0.18–1.38). Among ‘Parda’(Brown) women the risk was 1.18 (1.11–1.25), 1.68 (1.56–1.81), and 1.84 (1.63–2.08), respectively (RERI = 0.52, 0.16–0.87). Compared to high-educated White women, the risk in high-, middle- and low-educated Black women was 1.14 (0.83–1.55), 1.93 (1.57–2.38) and 2.75 (2.33–3.25), respectively (RERI = 0.36, −0.05–0.77). Among ‘Parda’(Brown) women the risk was 1.09 (0.91–1.31), 1.99 (1.70–2.33) and 3.03 (2.61–3.52), respectively (RERI = 0.68, 0.48–0.88). No interactions were found for breast cancer. Conclusion Low SES magnified racial inequalities in cervical cancer mortality. The intersection between race/ethnicity, SES and gender needs to be addressed to reduce racial health inequalities.

Pious Women Challenge Arrangements Anchored in the Dominancy of the Religious Discourse: Druze Women in Israel as a Case Study

This qualitative study examines how the agency of religious Druze women in Israel affects professional identity and religious affiliation and how these, in turn, shape the gender religious perception in their community, especially in the fields of education and employment. Through semi-structured interviews with twenty women, the study identifies the factors that promote or inhibit the increasing legitimacy in community religious discourse for the integration of religious women in higher education and quality employment. The main finding of the study is that religious, professionally educated Druze women in Israel direct their agency to a complex and challenging interaction with the modern world. By doing so, these women challenge the boundaries of their ultra-religious community, thereby expanding them. The findings show that educated religious Druze women in Israel reject the binary division between “conservative religious” and “modern” and replace it with different definitions of what is considered religious, conservative, and modern. One of the main insights that emerged from the study is that the women are able to act autonomously to make their choices, acquire education, integrate into the poor local labor market in professional positions, accumulate economic and social resources through their professional and religious status, and negotiate their status in the religious community.

Evaluating student evaluations: evidence of gender bias against women in higher education based on perceived learning and instructor personality

Given student evaluations are an integral part of academic employment and progression in higher education, it is crucial to explore various biases amongst students that may influence their ratings. Several studies report a clear gender bias in student evaluation where male instructors receive significantly higher ratings as compared to female instructors. However, there is very limited research about gender biases in underrepresented samples such as South Asia and the Middle East. We examined whether perception of male and female instructors differed in terms of how they facilitate learning and level of engagement, using an experimental design. Six hundred and seventy-one university students were asked to watch a video of an online lecture on psychology, delivered by either a male or female lecturer, after which they were asked to evaluate their experience and instructor personality characteristics. To ensure consistency across content, tone, delivery, environment, and overall appearance, photorealistic 3D avatars were used to deliver the lectures. Only gender as a factor was manipulated. Given the racial representation in the region, a total of four videos were developed representing males (n = 317) and females (n = 354) of White and South Asian race. Overall, male instructors scored significantly higher in variables representing personality characteristics such as enthusiasm and expressiveness compared to female instructors. Participants did not however view male and female instructors to be different in terms of presentation and subject knowledge. Findings related to facilitating learning suggest that male instructors were perceived to have made instructions more interesting, kept participants' attention for longer, and were more interesting compared to female instructors. In terms of engagement, male instructors were perceived to be more expressive, enthusiastic, and entertaining, compared to female instructors. Given the experimental design, these findings can clearly be attributed to gender bias, which is also in line with previous research. With an underrepresented sample, an online platform delivery, and inclusion of multiple races, these findings significantly add value to the current literature regarding gender stereotypes in higher education. The results are even more concerning as they provide strong evidence of gender bias which may contribute to subconscious discrimination against women academics in the region.

Transitions to Second Birth and Birth Intervals in France and Spain: Time Squeeze or Social Norms?

As first births are increasingly postponed across Europe, a strong two-child family norm persists. Past research has examined educational differentials in progressions to second birth, testing various hypotheses but overlooking normative aspects. Comparing fertility surveys from France and Spain, we explore whether late first-time mothers, who have fewer reproductive biological years left to conceive, accelerate the transition to a subsequent child (time squeeze effect). We also consider a normative dimension, i.e., whether women have their first child earlier or later than others in their educational and cohort groups. In both countries, among first-time mothers between 25 and 34 years of age, highly-educated women transitioned to second birth more frequently than less-educated women did. Within the same age group, highly-educated women in Spain had a second child more quickly after the firstborn than their less educated counterparts did, while there is no such difference in France. These results hold after controlling for cohort effects, but are only partly explained by a time squeeze effect. Different normative ages at first birth by education and birth cohort explain the educational gap in the likelihood of transitioning to second birth, but not the birth intervals in Spain. In sum, our analysis demonstrates a persistent educational gap in second births in this country that cannot be reduced to biological or normative effects. This suggests that a broad range of economic constraints play a role, such as unfavourable individual economic conditions and lower levels of institutional support for parenthood.