Fertility Intentions Of Women Research Articles

The Impact of Paid Parental Leave on Fertility Intentions*

Paid parental leave is an important part of family policy in OECD countries. Australia's Paid Parental Leave scheme was introduced in 2011 and provides 18 weeks of leave paid at the full‐time minimum wage for the primary carer of a child. We estimate the effect of access to paid parental leave on women's fertility intentions by exploiting the differential impact of the scheme for women working in the public and private sectors. We find that the scheme's announcement had no impact on fertility intentions at the extensive margin but that, conditional on intending to have at least one (more) child, the number of children intended increases by 0.34, a 16 per cent increase. This effect is concentrated among highly educated women. As it has been shown that fertility intentions predict fertility outcomes, these results suggest that even modest paid parental leave programs can increase the fertility of working women and so moderate the declines in fertility rates seen in many developed countries.

Family-supportive workplace policies and benefits and fertility intentions in South Korea

ABSTRACT In 2017, South Korea’s total fertility rate was 1.26 live births per woman, the sixth-lowest in the world. Employment is significantly negatively associated with second births in Korea. To increase fertility rates and help working women better balance work and family lives, a series of government family-supportive workplace policies and employer-provided occupational benefits have been implemented and expanded. The present study examined the effects of family-supportive workplace policies and benefits on boosting working women's fertility intentions in Korea by the current number of children (i.e. parity). Using the 2007–2012 Korean Longitudinal Survey of Women and Families (N = 3,405 working women), the study examined seven family policies and benefits. Results revealed that childcare leave was significantly associated with increasing working women’s first birth intentions. Also, women’s second birth intentions increased significantly when they had more family-supportive provisions at their workplaces. Despite these results, a majority of women perceived the family provisions to be unavailable at their workplaces. The present study underscores that women's fertility decisions differ significantly by parity and informs policymakers in their efforts to develop family provisions that address these differences and make family provisions more readily available.

Women’s gender role attitudes and fertility intentions of having a second child: survey findings from Shaanxi Province of China

ABSTRACTChina is a country with a unique history of gender traditions and birth-control regulations. Traditional gender role attitudes, closely related to son preference, exert entrenched influence on the fertility intentions and behaviours of women in China. In recent years, despite the fact that employment characteristics and educational attainment of women have caught up with men, China has witnessed a resurgence of patriarchal Confucian tradition. Gender relations in the private sphere are increasingly regulated by traditional gender norms. Considering the declining fertility in China and recent fertility policy adjustments, this paper analyses the varying effects of gender role attitudes on fertility intentions of women under different birth control policies, utilising data from 1,422 questionnaires conducted in 2015 in the Shaanxi Province in northwestern China and using the Multinomial Logistic Model. Our findings imply that the relationship between women’s gender role attitudes and fertility intention differs between women affected by different birth control policies. We find that among married women with one child who are restricted to one child, the more egalitarian the gender role attitude, the more likely they intend to have a second child. Among married women who have had one child and are allowed to have two children, the more egalitarian the gender role attitude, the less likely they intend to have a second child. The results also indicate that traditional gender role attitudes and norms still play an important role in Chinese women’s fertility intentions.

Using reproductive life plan-based information in a primary health care center increased Iranian women's knowledge of fertility, but not their future fertility plan: A randomized, controlled trial

ObjectivesReproductive Life Plan (RLP)-based information in counseling has been reported in the USA and Sweden to increase women's knowledge of fertility and informed decision making about future fertility plans. This study examined if utilizing the RLP tool would have the same impact on Iranian women. DesignA randomized, three-armed, controlled trial. 181 women were randomly allocated to the intervention group (IG, n = 61), control group 1 (CG1, n = 60) or control group 2 (CG2, n = 60). SettingA primary health care center in the Sari city, the Provincial capital of Mazandaran, Iran. ParticipantsWomen of reproductive age who were able to conceive. InterventionsThe intervention group received oral and written information about fertility based on the RLP tool. Participants were contacted 2 months after the intervention. The primary outcome measure was the change in women's knowledge of fertility, particularly folic acid intake prior to pregnancy, over a 2 month period. The change in women's family planning intentions were also assessed. The participants in the IG shared their experiences at follow-up. FindingsAt baseline, there was no difference between the groups regarding the mean knowledge of fertility score. At 2 months, after adjustment for age, history of pregnancy and baseline values, the between group difference in change from baseline was 5.8 (p < 0.001). While there was no significant difference between the IG and CG1 for folic acid intake prior to pregnancy at baseline, the group difference for folic acid intake prior to pregnancy post intervention was statistically significant (85% vs 25%, p < 0.001). At follow-up, women's desire to have more children, preferred age to conceive the last child and the desired age gap between children in the IG and CG1 did not significantly change over time. Women reported the RLP counseling tool used by midwives as useful. Key conclusionsProvision of RLP-based information for Iranian women with a clear pregnancy intention in the context of a stable relationship, increased knowledge of fertility without changing their future fertility plan. The RPL counseling tool was appreciated by study participants. The lack of improvement in women's fertility intentions over time may reflect the involvement of other factors influencing decision making about childbearing in Iran. Whether the RLP can change women's behavior is yet to be established. Implications for practiceThe RLP can be used by health care professionals, especially midwives, as a tool to increase women's fertility knowledge, which may result in fertility behavior change.

The influence of a supportive environment for families on women’s fertility intentions and behavior in South Korea

1.IntroductionThere is a great deal of heterogeneity in fertility levels across advanced countries. Scholars have observed an upturn in total fertility rates in Western countries in the past decade (Goldstein, Sobotka, and Jasilionience 2009; Myrskyla, Kohler, and Billari 2009). In addition, the relationship between trends in female labor force participation and fertility trends changed from negative to positive at the national level in the 1990s (e.g., Brewster and Rindfuss 2000; Del Boca 2002; Morgan 2003; Rindfuss et al. 2007). However, East Asian countries, such as South Korea (hereafter Korea) and Japan, continue to be exceptions to this recent rebound in fertility levels. Scholars explain this cross-national difference in fertility rates in relation to the compatibility between parenthood and labor force participation, augmented by state support to families and gender equality (Billingsley and Ferrarini 2014; Esping-Andersen and Billari 2015; McDonald 2000; Mills et al. 2011; Myrskyla, Kohler, and Billari 2011; Thevenon 2011).In a comparative study examining the cross-national variation in state support to families, Thevenon (2011) reveals that such support in Southern European countries, Japan, and Korea is characterized by a deficit of policies that enable a balance between work and family for women. Korea is markedly different from countries in the same group that offer similar levels of state support to families: It clearly lag[s] behind the other OECD countries, whichever type of support is considered (Thevenon 2011:64).In a context of limited state support for families, such as the case of Korea, how do women manage work and family balance? What kinds of sources of support do they rely on? In order to meet the varied demands of family, women with children may require support from other sources, including male partners or family networks, when the institutional regimes do not provide strong support (Balbo and Mills 2011). Several studies linking gender equity and fertility show that male partners' participation in housework and childcare positively affects women's fertility intentions, especially within contexts where the societal level of gender equality is low (Mills et al. 2008; Olah 2003). Scholars have recently explored the effect of support from grandparental childcare on fertility as a potential source of supportive environments to improve the compatibility between work and family (Hank and Buber 2009; Thomese and Liefbroer 2013). However, previous studies have often focused on a single source of a supportive environment for family, either from the state, male partners, or extended family, and the impact of such a source on fertility (Harknett, Billari, and Medalia 2014). Few studies have comprehensively evaluated varying sources of support for the family and how they relate to fertility decision-making in an analysis at the individual level.I aim to fill in this gap in the literature by examining the influence of three sources of a supportive environment for the family on women's fertility intentions and behavior. I situate the Korean case in a broader discussion on the nuanced relationship between access to family support and fertility in a context lacking institutional support for childrearing, embedded in low levels of gender equality. Using data from the three waves of the Korean Longitudinal Survey of Women & Families from 2007 to 2010, I examine whether three sources of a supportive environment for families - the state, husbands, and parents or in-laws - influence fertility intentions and fertility behavior for married women with one child. My analysis focuses on second births, given the cultural context of a rapid transition to first birth within the first years of marriage in Korea (Statistics Korea 2015).2 Moreover, this analysis enables me to examine the impact on second births of existing childcare support from the three sources of a supportive environment for the family (Thomese and Liefbroer 2013). …

Fertility desires and intentions among HIV-positive women during the post-natal period in Uganda.

This study describes the fertility intentions and discusses the potential reproductive health needs of post-natal HIV-infected Ugandan women. HIV-infected mothers attending post-natal services in Kampala, Uganda participated in this cross-sectional study using structured interviewer administered questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression models were used to identify predictors of desire for more children. Among 403 participants, 35% desired more children. Of these, 25% wanted another child within 2 years and 75% within 3 years or more. In multivariable analyses, believing that one's partners wanted more children (OR = 2.44; 95% CI = 1.30, 4.59) was associated with the desire for future children while having more living children was negatively associated with the desire for future children (OR = 0.08; 95% CI = 0.02, 0.39). A minority of women desired future pregnancies, and most wanted to delay pregnancy for 3 years. These women are in need of family planning (FP) methods to meet stated desires to delay or end future pregnancies. Perceived partner desire for children also impacts on women's fertility intentions, highlighting the importance of engaging men during the post-natal period.67-77)

Couples' Unmet Need for Family Planning in Three West African Countries

Unmet need for family planning is typically calculated for currently married women, but excluding husbands may result in misleading estimates of couples' unmet need. This study builds on previous work and proposes a method of calculating couples' unmet need for family planning based on spouses' independent fertility intentions. We analyze Demographic and Health Survey data from couples from three West African countries-Benin, Burkina Faso, and Mali. We find that fewer than half of couples having any unmet need had concordant unmet need (41-49 percent). A similar percentage of couples had wife-only unmet need (33-40 percent). A smaller percentage had husband-only unmet need (15-23 percent). Calculating unmet need based only on women's fertility intentions overestimates concordant unmet need. Additionally, that approximately 15-23 percent of couples have husband-only unmet need suggests that men could be an entry point for contraceptive use for more couples than at present. To calculate husbands' unmet need, population-based surveys should consider collecting the necessary data consistently.

FERTILITY INTENTIONS AND EARLY LIFE HEALTH STRESS AMONG WOMEN IN EIGHT INDIAN CITIES: TESTING THE REPRODUCTIVE ACCELERATION HYPOTHESIS.

In life history theory, early life adversity is associated with an accelerated reproductive tempo. In harsh and unpredictable conditions in developing societies fertility is generally higher and the reproductive tempo faster than in more secure environments. This paper examines whether differences in female anthropometry, particularly adult height, are associated with fertility intentions of women in urban environments in India. The study population consists of women aged 15-29 (N=4485) in slums and non-slums of eight Indian cities in the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) of 2005-2006. Adult height is taken as a proxy for early childhood health and nutritional condition. Fertility intentions are examined by using two variables: the desire to have a child or another child, and to have it relatively soon, as indicative of accelerated reproductive scheduling. Evidence supporting the acceleration hypothesis is found in two urban frames out of 26 examined in a two-staged multinomial logistic model. In three cases, the relationship between fertility intentions and height is the opposite than expected by the acceleration hypothesis: taller women have a higher predictive probability of desiring a(nother) child and/or narrower birth spacing. Potential explanations for the partly contradictory relationship between the childhood health indicator and fertility intentions are discussed.

On the positive correlation between education and fertility intentions in Europe: Individual- and country-level evidence.

Increasing shares of European women are making large investments in their human capital. Whether and to what extent these investments are in conflict with reproductive behaviour are issues that have repercussions for fertility levels. Using two Eurobarometer survey data (2006 and 2011) on individuals clustered in the 27 EU countries, I investigate the relationship between women's education and lifetime fertility intentions. Results suggest that a positive association between women's level of education and lifetime fertility intentions exists at both the individual and country levels, as well as in a micro–macro integrated framework. The main explanation for these findings—which remains to be proven by future research—is that, in institutional contexts allowing highly educated women to have large families, women of reproductive ages are more prone to make investments in both human capital and family size, because these choices are not seen as incompatible alternatives.

To Have or Not to Have a Child? Perceived Constraints on Childbearing in a Lowest‐Low Fertility Context

AbstractThe influence of perceived macro‐level constraints on childbearing on women's fertility decision‐making on the micro level was analysed in Stakhanov, a city with a shrinking population in Eastern Ukraine. The perceived macro‐level constraints employed in the study were related to childcare arrangements, value changes regarding family formation, and pollution of the environment and health concerns. To study the influence of those constraints, logistic regression analyses were conducted whereby first‐birth and second‐birth intentions were analysed separately. None of the constraints influenced childless women's first‐birth intentions. Instead, sociodemographic factors such as age and civil status appeared as significant predictors. That none of the constraints influenced childless women's fertility intentions is interpreted to be an indicator of the strong norm of having at least one child in Ukraine.For women with one child, the fact that pollution of the environment and health concerns connected to childbirth were perceived as a constraint on childbearing at the national level was significantly associated with lower second‐birth intentions. Women in Ukraine seem to perceive environmental pollution as a constraint on their fertility, possibly influenced by public discourse related to the health consequences of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Moreover, the inhabitants of Stakhanov itself have experienced environmental pollution at close range. Those factors together could explain why environmental pollution and poor health were seen as constraints on childbearing at the national level, and the negative influence these had on second‐birth intentions.It is argued that environmental pollution should be considered a factor influencing fertility decision‐making. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

A study of fertility intentions of women in Uyo, Nigeria

Fertility desires are known to reflect subsequent fertility behaviour, therefore, understanding these desires therefore could help in planning strategies to modify fertility behaviour. We undertook the study to contribute useful information in planning future family planning strategies in our region. This was a questionnaire-based cross-sectional study among antenatal women in two health facilities in Uyo, Nigeria. Results show that the mean number of children desired was four. Majority of women (73.2%) desired a maximum of four children while 24.1% wanted 5 to 6 children. The number of children desired was significantly related to the patient’s education (P<0.001) and the husband’s education (P<0.001) and majority of women (94%) had discussed this with their husbands. The most common reasons given for the number of children desired were the number they can cater for (45.2%), husband’s desires (35.8%) and to protect the woman’s health (21.5%). Majority of respondents (66.7%) were aware of the previous government policy on the number of children to have and contraception (92.4%), but only 52.6% had ever used any form of contraception. In conclusion, women in Uyo are generally desirous of smaller family sizes. It is important to develop strategies to increase contraceptive uptake if these desires are to be achieved. Key words: Fertility, fertility intention, fertility desire, contraception, Nigeria.

Avoir un deuxième enfant en Italie : de l'intention à la réalisation

Résumé En Italie, l’indice synthétique de fécondité est largement au-dessous du niveau de remplacement des générations, mais la plupart des femmes envisagent toujours d’avoir deux enfants. Il y a donc un décalage entre les intentions de fécondité et les comportements observés. Les auteures cherchent à évaluer, au niveau individuel, le degré de concordance entre les intentions de fécondité des mères d’un enfant et leur fécondité ultérieure, et à mettre en évidence quelles caractéristiques affectent à la fois les intentions positives de fécondité et leur réalisation à court terme. Cette analyse est élaborée à partir d’une base de données ad hoc construite en reliant l’édition 2002 de l’Enquête par sondage sur les naissances (où étaient recueillies les intentions de fécondité des mères) aux naissances vivantes inscrites dans le Registre de la population entre 2002 et 2008. Les résultats montrent que les intentions de fécondité des mères d’un enfant ont une influence déterminante sur leur comportement reproductif futur. Les hypothèses de l’influence du statut socioéconomique de ces femmes et de la charge des tâches ménagères sur leur intention d’avoir un autre enfant et la réalisation de ce projet ont été testées : les auteures constatent que le statut socioéconomique affecte moins les intentions positives de fécondité que leur réalisation, et que la charge de travail domestique ne paraît pas avoir d’effet significatif.

Fertility Intentions and Reproductive Health Care Needs of People Living with HIV in Cape Town, South Africa: Implications for Integrating Reproductive Health and HIV Care Services

Tailoring sexual and reproductive health services to meet the needs of people living with the human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) is a growing concern but there are few insights into these issues where HIV is most prevalent. This cross-sectional study investigated the fertility intentions and associated health care needs of 459 women and men, not sampled as intimate partners of each other, living with HIV in Cape Town, South Africa. An almost equal proportion of women (55%) and men (43%) living with HIV, reported not intending to have children as were open to the possibility of having children (45 and 57%, respectively). Overall, greater intentions to have children were associated with being male, having fewer children, living in an informal settlement and use of antiretroviral therapy. There were important gender differences in the determinants of future childbearing intentions, with being on HAART strongly associated with women's fertility intentions. Gender differences were also apparent in participants' key reasons for wanting children. A minority of participants had discussed their reproductive intentions and related issues with HIV health care providers. There is an urgent need for intervention models to integrate HIV care with sexual and reproduction health counseling and services that account for the diverse reproductive needs of these populations.

Intended and Ideal Family Size in the United States, 1970–2002

Cross‐nationally, observed fertility is well below mean levels of reported ideal family size and also usually well below survey respondents' fertility desires and intentions. The United States is an exception. In this article we: (1) discuss the importance of fertility ideals and intentions for understanding observed fertility levels, (2) propose a model that can account for variable attitude‐behavior consistency, and (3) use this model as a framework to examine trends in American women's fertility ideals, intentions, and actual fertility. Our study uses data from the General Social Surveys and the Current Population Surveys. We ask whether preferences and intentions for moderate family sizes have eroded with time. The answer is remarkably clear: the dominant American ideals and intentions are for two or three children, and these preferences have persisted across the last three decades. The unusual aggregate correspondence between fertility intentions and behavior in the United States is explained by an apparent offsetting of factors that increase/decrease fertility relative to intentions.

Reasons for not using family planning methods in Eastern Turkey

The reasons for not using family planning methods among women aged 15-45 years were investigated in the Eastern region of Turkey. A total of 518 randomly selected women were interviewed with a questionnaire. Information was collected on women's fertility behavior and intentions, sources of knowledge and practice of contraception and sociodemographic characteristics. The rate of women who were not using any form of family planning was 45.2%. The reasons for not using any form of family planning were: not having the approval of the husband or family leaders (38%); believing that it was a sin to use a family planning method (32.5%); believing that it could cause abnormal bleeding (14.1%); believing that it could cause infertility (7.3%); believing that it could cause cancer (4.7%); and believing that it could cause pelvic pain (3.4%). Efforts should be directed towards education of family members and religious leaders to increase the usage of family planning methods.

Reasons for not using family planning methods in Eastern Turkey

Objective: The reasons for not using family planning methods among women aged 15-45 years were investigated in the Eastern region of Turkey.Methods: A total of 518 randomly selected womenwere interviewed with a questionnaire. Information was collected on women's fertility behavior and intentions, sources of knowledge and practice of contraception and sociodemographic characteristics.Results: The rate of women who were not using any form of family planning was 45.2%. The reasons for not using any form of family planning were: not having the approval of the husband or family leaders(38%); believing that it was a sin to use a family planning method (32.5%); believing that it could cause abnormal bleeding (14.1%); believing that it could cause infertility (7.3%); believing that it couldcause cancer (4.7%); and believing that it could cause pelvic pain (3.4%).Conclusion: Efforts should be directed towards education of family members and religious leaders to increase the usageof family planning methods.

Women's Roles and Fertility Intentions

This study examines the relation of attitudinal and behavioral measures of womens role orientation to fertility intentions of married women using a generalized least squares procedure appropriate for examining interaction effects. A final sample of 4469 white currently married women (from the 1970 National Fertility Survey) living with their husbands and less than 45 years of age was studied. The following variables were dichotomized: labor force participation sex role attitudes age and fertility intentions. Educational attainment was trichotomized. The results were as expected: labor force participation a contemporary sex role orientation higher education and youth all increased the probability of womens intentions to have 2 or less children. The findings also supported the predicted effects of a labor force-sex role interaction and an age-sex role interaction: that in both cases women are likely to be strongly committed to extrafamilial activities. The lower fertility intentions observed in working women with college education and college-educated women conform to the framework of role compatibility. With respect to the size and relative importance of effects age had the largest effect followed by college attendance labor force participation sex role attitudes and finally high school and interactions. The relative size of the effects will enable future studies to unravel the different aspects of age (e.g. cohort vs. developmental influences). Generally structural and behavioral components of role orientation precede the attitudinal components. Factors which increase womens participation in and favorable attitudes toward nonfamilial activities contribute to lower fertility intentions.

On the Interaction between the Quantity and Quality of Children

Students of human fertility have been aware for a long time that there may be some special relation between the number (quantity) of children ever born to a family and the "quality" of their children as perceived by others if not by the parents. One need only cite the negative correlation between quantity and quality of children per family so often observed in both cross-section and time-series data. One of us (Becker 1960) more than a decade ago stressed the importance for understanding fertility (quantity) of the interaction between quantity and quality, and we are pleased to note that this interaction is emphasized in most of the papers in this Supplement, especially those by De Tray and Willis. Some economists have argued that the negative relation between quantity and quality often observed is a consequence of a low substitution elasticity in a family's utility function between parents' consumption or level of living and that of their children (see, e.g., Duesenberry 1960; Willis 1969). The approach followed by De Tray in this volume is different, but it makes equally special assumptions about the substitution between quantity and quality in the utility function and in household production.