Mexican-origin Women Research Articles

Segmented assimilation theory and perinatal health disparities among women of Mexican descent

A higher prevalence of infant low birth weight (<2500 g) has been observed among more acculturated mothers of Mexican descent living in the U.S. when compared to their less acculturated counterparts. Tests of the "acculturation hypothesis" have established that disparities in certain risks for low birth weight exist between subgroups of women of Mexican-origin. However, disparities observed by neighborhood of residence have yet to be explained. Most tests of the acculturation hypothesis assume a classical path of assimilation, whereby Mexican American health is expected to deteriorate with time spent residing in the U.S. and across the generations. The theory of segmented assimilation suggests that alternative paths are possible depending upon individual characteristics and the context of the neighborhood into which immigrant families and their children reside. This study tested the theory of segmented assimilation as a framework for examining the geographic, cultural, and socioeconomic underpinnings of population differences in infant low birth weight among women of Mexican descent in California using the 2000 U.S. Census and population-based data from the Maternal and Infant Health Assessment (1999-2005) (n=6442). Little support was found for the theory's hypotheses. Rather, increased odds for infant low birth weight were observed for English speakers residing in Latino immigrant neighborhoods when compared to English speakers in other neighborhoods, an effect attenuated for Spanish speakers. Elevated odds of low birth weight were also observed among English speakers residing in Latino immigrant neighborhoods when compared to Spanish speakers in the same neighborhoods. Findings suggest the transfer of health-specific social capital in ethnic neighborhoods may depend upon sociocultural consonance between individuals and neighborhood residents. The authors call for additional research that sheds light on the sociocultural dynamics of maternal and infant health at multiple levels.

Fertile matters: the politics of Mexican-origin women's reproduction

Fertile matters: the politics of Mexican-origin women's reproduction

Frequency and Perceived Effectiveness of Strategies to Survive Abuse Employed by Battered Mexican-Origin Women

This study documented the frequency and perceived effectiveness of battered Mexican-origin women's usage of formal and informal help and personal strategies to survive abuse. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 75 battered Mexican-origin women. Consistent with survivor theory, results indicated that participants sought help multiple times from several formal and informal help sources; some (i.e., shelter, family) were perceived more effective than others (i.e., lawyer, in-laws). Participants engaged in various personal strategies to survive abuse; some (i.e., using faith/religion) were rated more effective than others (i.e., placating the batterer). Responses to open-ended questions suggest why specific help sources and strategies were/were not effective and provide socioculturally specific suggestions for improving services. This study illuminates battered Mexican-origin women's strengths and barriers that impede their survival efforts. Contributions include focusing on a subset of battered Latinas and documenting the frequency and perceived effectiveness of a wide array of help sources and strategies.

Differences in Contraceptive Use Across Generations of Migration Among Women of Mexican Origin

To explore differences in contraceptive use among women of Mexican origin across generations of migration. Logit models were used to assess contraceptive use among 1,830 women of Mexican origin in Cycles 5 (1995) and 6 (2002) of the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG). Analyses were stratified by age. Initial models controlled for survey year and underlying differences across generations of migration in age and parity; subsequent models added a range of potential mediating variables. Models account for significant interactions between generation of migration and parity. Among women under age 30 who have not yet had any children, women in their twenties with parity 3 or more, and women 30 or older with parity 1 or 2, those born in the US are much more likely to use contraception than immigrant women. For other levels of parity, there are no significant differences in contraceptive use across generations of migration. Generational differences in marital status, socio-economic status, health insurance coverage, and catholic religiosity did little to mediate the association between generation of migration and contraceptive use. Among women of Mexican origin, patterns of contraceptive use among first-generation immigrants and women of generation 1.5 are similar to those of women in Mexico, with very low rates of contraceptive use among young women who have not yet had a child. Further research is needed to investigate the extent to which this pattern is due to fertility preferences, contraceptive access, or concerns about side effects and infertility. Patterns of contraceptive use appear to change more slowly with acculturation than many other factors, such as education, income, and work force participation.

Acculturation and Changes in the Likelihood of Pregnancy and Feelings About Pregnancy Among Women of Mexican Origin

ABSTRACT This study explored the changes that occur with acculturation in the likelihood that women of Mexican origin in the United States get pregnant, that they considered their pregnancies intended, and that they were happy about their pregnancies. Data were from 924 women of Mexican origin in the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. Results showed that, controlling for underlying differences in age and parity, Mexican-origin women born in the United States were less likely to conceive a pregnancy than first-generation immigrants (O.R. = 0.69, C.I. 0.56–0.83), but the pregnancies they conceived were less likely to be intended (O.R. = 0.53, C.I. 0.35–0.79), and they were less likely to be happy about them (O.R. = 0.76, C.I. 0.57–1.01). These changes were associated with the decreases in marriage, poverty, and Catholic religiosity that occurred between first-generation immigrants and women of later generations. Findings highlight the unmet need for effective family planning among women of all generations of migration, but particularly those born in the United States.

Hope, Locus of Control, and Quality of Health Among Elder Latina Cancer Survivors

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of hope and internal locus of control on the health and well-being of older women of Mexican origin who have been diagnosed with cancer. The study was conducted using data from Wave 2 of the Hispanic Established Populations for the Epidemiological Study for the Elderly (H-EPESE), a survey of 3050 Mexican American elders living in five southwestern states. To examine the effects of locus of conttol and hope on self-reported health, somatization, negative affect, and resttiction of activity as dependent variables, we applied multiple regression (OLS) analysis to a sub sample of 109 women who reported having a diagnosis of cancer. We used four models to sequentially assess the effects of conttol variables, locus of conttol plus conttol variables, hope plus conttol variables, and both locus of conttol and hope plus conttol variables on each of the four dependent variables. The results indicated that locus of conttol was significantly associated only with three of the four dependent variables and hope was significantly associated with more favorable outcomes for each of the dependent variables. Implications for practice and further research are discussed.

Low birthweight among US Hispanic/Latino subgroups: The effect of maternal foreign-born status and education

We investigated whether maternal foreign-born status confers a protective effect against low birthweight (LBW) across US Hispanic/Latino subgroups (i.e., Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans and Central/South Americans) in the USA, and whether the association between maternal education and LBW varies by Hispanic/Latino subgroup and by foreign-born status. We conducted logistic regression analyses of the 2002 US Natality Detail Data ( n=634,797). Overall, foreign-born Latino women are less likely to have LBW infants than US-born Latino women. The protective effect of foreign-born status is stronger among Latino women with less than high school education. The maternal education gradient is significantly flatter among foreign-born Latino women than among their US-born counterparts ( p<0.001). Patterns among Mexican-origin women account for the overall trends among all Latinos.Foreign-born status (main effect) reduces the risk of LBW among Mexicans by about 21% but does not protect against LBW among other Latino subgroups (i.e., Puerto Ricans, Cubans and Central/South Americans). Among Mexicans and Central South Americans, the protective effect of foreign-born status is stronger among women with low education (i.e., 0–11 and 12 years) than among women with more education (i.e., 13–15 and 16+ years). The educational gradient in LBW is less pronounced among foreign-born Mexicans and Central/South Americans than among their US-born counterparts. As such, maternal foreign-born status and education are associated with LBW, though the direction and strength of these associations vary across Latino subgroups. A “health paradox” is apparent for foreign-born Mexican and Central/South American women among whom there is a weak maternal educational gradient in LBW. Future research may test hypotheses regarding the mechanisms underlying these variations in LBW among Latino subgroups, i.e., different gradients in sending countries, health selection of immigrants, cultural factors, and social support.

Paradox found (again): infant mortality among the Mexican-origin population in the United States.

Recent research suggests that the favorable mortality outcomes for the Mexican immigrant population in the United States may largely be attributable to selective out-migration among Mexican immigrants, resulting in artificially low recorded death rates for the Mexican-origin population. In this paper we calculate detailed age-specific infant mortality rates by maternal race/ethnicity and nativity for two important reasons: (1) it is extremely unlikely that women of Mexican origin would migrate to Mexico with newborn babies, especially if the infants were only afew hours or afew days old; and (2) more than 50% of all infant deaths in the United States occur during the first week of life, when the chances of out-migration are very small. We use concatenated data from the U.S. linked birth and infant death cohort files from 1995 to 2000, which provides us with over 20 million births and more than 150,000 infant deaths to analyze. Our results clearly show that first-hour, first-day, and first-week mortality rates among infants born in the United States to Mexican immigrant women are about 10% lower than those experienced by infants of non-Hispanic, white U.S.-born women. It is extremely unlikely that such favorable rates are artificially caused by the out-migration of Mexican-origin women and infants, as we demonstrate with a simulation exercise. Further, infants born to U.S.-born Mexican American women exhibit rates of mortality that are statistically equal to those of non-Hispanic white women during the first weeks of life and fare considerably better than infants born to non-Hispanic black women, with whom they share similar socioeconomic profiles. These patterns are all consistent with the definition of the epidemiologic paradox as originally proposed by Markides and Coreil (1986).

Sharpening the Focus on Acculturative Change

Acculturation is conceptualized as a multidimensional process but is typically measured as a concurrent movement away from culture of origin as a new cultural orientation is obtained. In this study, the authors examined the overall and subscale scoring systems of the ARSMA-II, the most popular acculturation measure, for its associations with stress, pregnancy anxiety, and birthweight in a large sample of pregnant, Mexican-origin women from the Study for Hispanic Acculturation, Reproduction, and the Environment. As predicted, the ARSMA-II's overall acculturation score and two orthogonal subscales, Mexican orientation and Anglo orientation, revealed differing patterns of associations with stress, pregnancy anxiety, and birthweight. Mexican orientation was negatively associated with stress, positively associated with pregnancy anxiety, and not associated with birthweight. Anglo orientation was positively associated with stress and negatively associated with birthweight. The gains to be made in understanding processes that may change with acculturation by incorporating multidimensional analyses of acculturation are discussed.

A multivitamin supplementation and education intervention as an effective means of increasing multivitamin use among postpartum women of Mexican origin

Postpartum Hispanic women in the USA are at elevated risk for neural tube defects in subsequent pregnancies from the combined effects of ethnicity, folate depletion from the prior pregnancy and lactation, and high parity rates with short inter-birth intervals. This study evaluated an education programme and distribution of a 3-month starter package of multivitamins among Hispanic women attending nutrition clinics for low-income women in El Paso, Texas. At 1-6 weeks postpartum, 329 subjects were selected to receive education only, multivitamins only, education and multivitamins, or no intervention. Multivariable regression obtained odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals [CI] to measure the association between intervention status and self-reported multivitamin use at least four times per week at 6 and 12 months postpartum, while controlling for potential confounding variables. Multivitamin distribution was related to consumption at both 6 months (OR = 3.5 [95% CI 1.1, 11.2]) and 12 months (OR = 6.5 [95% CI 1.5, 28.3]). Multivitamins plus education was most effective in increasing multivitamin use at both periods: 6 months (OR = 4.0 [95% CI 1.53, 11.7]) and 12 months (OR = 6.4 [95% CI 1.7, 24.2]). At enrolment, 66% of women regularly took vitamins, and approximately 35% took them at both 6 and 12 months postpartum. The education intervention alone was not associated with multivitamin use at either 6 months (OR = 0.79 [95% CI 0.3, 2.4]) or 12 months (OR = 3.1 [95% CI 0.8, 12.1]). Multivitamin use declines precipitously during postpartum at the time Hispanic women may be susceptible to a subsequent pregnancy. This study provides evidence that multivitamin starter packs sustain multivitamin usage up to 1 year postpartum for a specific high-risk group, but the effect of educational intervention alone should be further studied.

The effect of time in the U.S. on the duration of breastfeeding in women of Mexican descent.

Although women of Mexican decent have high rates of breastfeeding, these rates may vary considerably by acculturation level. This study investigated whether increased years of residence in the U.S. is associated with poorer breastfeeding practices, including shorter duration of any and exclusive breastfeeding, in a population of low-income mothers of Mexican descent. Pregnant women (n = 490) were recruited from prenatal clinics serving a predominantly Mexican-origin population in an agricultural region of California. Women were interviewed during pregnancy, shortly postpartum, and when their child was 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, and 3.5 years of age. Increased years of residence in the U.S. was associated with decreased likelihood of initiating breastfeeding and shorter duration of exclusive and any breastfeeding. Median duration of exclusive breastfeeding was 2 months for women living in the U.S. for 5 years or less, 1 month for women living in the U.S. for 6 to 10 years, and less than one week for women living in the U.S. for 11 years or more, or for their entire lives (lifetime residents). After controlling for maternal age, education, marital status and work status, lifetime residents of the U.S. were 2.4 times more likely to stop breastfeeding, and 1.5 times more likely to stop exclusive breastfeeding, than immigrants who had lived in the U.S. for 5 years or less. Efforts are needed to encourage and support Mexican-origin women to maintain their cultural tradition of breastfeeding as they become more acculturated in the U.S.

Social Exchange Practices among Mexican-Origin Women in Nogales, Arizona

This paper summarizes quantitative and qualitative findings from a 1999 study of Mexican-origin households in Nogales, Arizona. It finds that women’s educational progress is facilitated by social support and, even more important, that a household’s investment in the education of its members is significantly raised with an increase in the education level of the female head of household. It argues that systematic efforts to build on existent cultural frameworks of social support will promote women’s educational progress and thus help improve educational opportunities for all people of Mexican origin.

Effects of peer nutrition education on consumption of fruits, vegetables and dietary fat among Spanish‐speaking WIC Participants

We tested the effectiveness of peer nutrition education in increasing fruit and vegetable consumption and lowering the intake of total fat and saturated fat among Mexican-American women. Two groups participated in randomized clinical trials with evaluations at the first and the seventeenth week in each group. Enrollment included 98 women of Mexican origin (low income, low literacy, low acculturated) in an experimental group and 97 in a control group, at the Norton Spanish-speaking WIC clinic in San Bernardino, California. Eighty-two from the experimental group and 72 from the control group completed the study. The experimental group received peer nutrition education. The control group received conventional health education delivered by registered dietitians. Both groups received three 45-minutes classes over three months. Intake of fruit, vegetables, and dietary fat where assessed with a food frequency questionnaire. We performed the following statistical tests: independent t-test, to compare differences between groups; paired t-test, to assess the group change between weeks 1 and 17; and 2 (treatment) x 2 (time) MANOVA, to test the interaction in a repeated measures. There were significant increase in fruit consumption (+1 serving), and decrease in the percent of calories from total fat (-4.4%), and saturated fat (-2.3%) in the experimental group when compared with the controls. The experimental group achieved current dietary recommendations for total fat (30%), saturated fat (10%), and fruits and vegetables intake (5 servings/day). Peer nutrition education can be effective to significantly improve the diet among WIC participants of Mexican origin.

The healthy migrant theory: Variations in pregnancy outcomes among US-born migrants

Various studies have observed that infants born to foreign-born women have better birth outcomes (lower rates of preterm, low birth weight, and infant mortality) than those delivered to US-born women. While much attention has been given to the “healthy migrant effect” as an explanation for these positive outcomes, this theory has not been examined in an internally migrant population. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between maternal mobility history and birth outcomes among infants born to US resident mothers of Mexican origin. The study used 1995–1999 National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) live birth/infant death cohort files of singleton infants delivered in the US to white women of Mexican origin ( n = 2 , 446 , 253 ). Maternal mobility history (MMH), which refers to the relationship between the maternal place of birth and the state of residence at delivery, was categorized into the four following groups: (a) foreign-born—place of birth outside the US and delivery in the US; (b) outside-region—place of birth in one US region and delivery in another US region; (c) within-region—place of birth in one US region and delivery in a different state in the same US region; and (d) within-state—place of birth and delivery in the same US state. Consistently, there is evidence to support the healthy migrant effect in an internally migrant population. Unique to this study are the findings that infants born to mothers with outside-region MMH had a lower risk of low birth weight (LBW) and small-for-gestational age (SGA) compared to those who did not move. Overall, this study provides evidence that the healthy migrant effect and its relationship to birth outcomes can be applied to an internally migrant population.

Sexuality and Risks: Gendered Discourses about Virginity and Disease among Young Women of Mexican Origin

This paper explores the constructions of sexuality and risk by young Mexicanas in California, comparing high school students and university students. These women are at risk of sexually transmitted infections as well as pregnancy and negotiate these risks in relation to contradictory gendered discourses. In a college environment or in migrant communities, women are exposed to questions about their reputation as “mujeres decentes.” Drawing on focus groups, life histories, and participant observation with young women of Mexican origin, we show how they negotiate contradictory gendered discourses. We argue that in this highly fluid and fraught context, young women have difficulty negotiating safer sexual practices and often make decisions that place them at risk of sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy.

Employment Hardship Among Mexican-Origin Women

This study compares the prevalence and causes of employment hardship between Mexicanorigin and White women. Data come from the March 1992, 1996, and 2000 Current Population Surveys. Using logistic regression, the author assesses whether there is a difference between Mexican-origin and White women in employment hardship, controlling for personal and structural factors. Then, the analysis is conducted separately for these two groups of women to evaluate whether particular correlates of employment hardship affect them differently. The findings show that there were more than twice as many Mexicanorigin women than White women who experienced employment hardship. Net of relevant factors, employment hardship among Mexican women was greater than among comparable White women. Separate analysis revealed that Mexican-origin women who were young, poorly educated, recent immigrants, and employed in low-skilled occupations and the services industry were vulnerable to employment hardship.

A Glass Half Empty: Latina Reproduction and Public Discourse

Latina reproduction and fertility have become ground zero in a political war--not just of words but of public policies and laws. This article builds on a theoretical framework that includes issues of stratified reproduction which characterize some women as reproductive threats to society. From an examination of the discourse found in 10 national magazines over a 35-year period beginning in 1965 emerge three interrelated themes concerning Latina reproductive threat: 1) high fertility and population growth; 2) reconquest; and 3) overuse of medical and other social services. The final section examines data on reproduction and fertility collected from Latinas and Anglo women in Orange County California to explore the truth claims associated with Latina reproduction and fertility. The findings suggest that Latinas do not begin sexual activities at a relatively early age nor do they have relatively more sexual partners than Anglo women. Most Latinas have used birth control pills at some point in their lives. Latinas generally have fewer than two children per woman. Mexican-origin women born or raised in the Untied States had fewer children than adult immigrants and their differences from Anglo women were insignificant. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression finds that age marital status education and language acculturation are more important than ethnicity for understanding fertility. (authors)

CYP2D6 poor metabolizers in depressed women of Mexican origin

Purpose Pharmacogenetic information regarding the Mexican-American population is sparse. It has been suggested that fewer Mexican-Americans are CYP2D6 poor metabolizers than Anglos. While some studies have reported that U.S. Hispanics are more sensitive to drugs metabolized by CYP2D6 others have not shown differences. Our ongoing study investigates the pharmacogenetics of desipramine or fluoxetine in the in the Los Angeles Mexican-origin population. Methods: Subanalysis of a prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Results: We describe two Mexican-American women who were found to have elevated levels of desipramine and severe side effects after taking a minimal dose for two weeks. CYP2D6 genotyping indicated both women to have the mutant allele *4/*4 which has been found in poor metabolizers. Conclusions: CYP2D6 genotyping is of considerable public health relevance. This should become a routine laboratory exam for patients who are treated with medications that are metabolized by this enzyme, including minorities whose adverse responses are at times inappropriately attributed to cultural factors. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics (2004) 75, P41–P41; doi: 10.1016/j.clpt.2003.11.153

Using Zero-inflated Count Regression Models To Estimate The Fertility Of U. S. Women

In the modeling of count variables there is sometimes a preponderance of zero counts. This article concerns the estimation of Poisson regression models (PRM) and negative binomial regression models (NBRM) to predict the average number of children ever born (CEB) to women in the U.S. The PRM and NBRM will often under-predict zeros because they do not consider zero counts of women who are not trying to have children. The fertility of U.S. white and Mexican-origin women show that zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) and zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) models perform better in many respects than the Poisson and negative binomial models. Zero-inflated Poisson and negative binomial regression models are statistically appropriate for the modeling of fertility in low fertility populations, especially when there is a preponderance of women in the society with no children.

Ethnic differences in birth weight by gestational age: at least a partial explanation for the Hispanic epidemiologic paradox?

Objective The purpose of this study was to evaluate ethnic differences in low birth weight and gestational age–dependent birth weight. Study design A retrospective cohort study of 47,669 newborn infants was conducted with the use of the perinatal database of the Memorial Health Care System. Logistic regression was used to estimate the odds ratio for low birth weight by ethnic group, which took into account gestational age at delivery. Multiple linear regression models were then developed to predict ethnic differences in birth weight by gestational age. Results When compared with white women, the adjusted odds ratio for low birth weight in of Mexican origin women (1.16; 95% CI, 1.02-1.32) was substantially lower than that of African American women (2.21; 95% CI, 1.87-2.60). An analysis of birth weight by gestational age suggested that African American neonates were intrinsically smaller than Hispanic neonates (difference, 4.22%). Conclusion At least some of the differences in low birth weight that are noted among ethnic minorities may be attributable to ethnic differences in birth weight by gestational age.