Married Women Research Articles

Married and Divorced Women's Emotional and Social Issues

The emotional and social difficulties that married and divorced women encounter are examined in this article, with a focus on the unique but related problems that exist in both situations. Studies show that whereas divorced women usually experience feelings of grief, stigma, and adjusting to life as a single person, married women typically deal with stressors associated with marriage expectations and society norms. The influence of these emotional and social concerns on women's mental health, relationships, and general well- being is examined in this article through a qualitative review of current studies. To improve the quality of life for women in both marital statuses, it is imperative to comprehend these dynamics to build tailored support systems and treatments.

A Survey on Female Employment and the Quality of Their Family Relationships in Mahabad, Iran (2017–2018)

Abstract The primary objective of this descriptive survey is to examine the correlation between women’s employment and the quality of their family relationships in Mahabad, a Kurdish city in the northwest of Iran. This locale has distinct cultural norms and perspectives concerning female employment. The statistical sample consists of all married women aged between 20 and 60 years and employed within the urban areas of Mahabad from 2017 to 2018. This group encompasses a total of 2,995 individuals (N = 2995). Employing Cochran’s formula, the sample size was determined to be n = 350. Participants were selected through multi-stage clustering and systematic random sampling methodologies. Data were collected through a researcher-designed questionnaire, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient estimated at 0.89, indicating satisfactory reliability. Descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were employed for data analysis, including the chi-square test and percentage frequency distribution tables. The study’s central hypothesis was validated using the chi-square test at a 5% significance level. Consequently, the research findings substantiate that, within the context of Mahabad, employed women exhibit a higher quality of family relationships than their unemployed counterparts. Given the historically limited discourse on the circumstances of Kurdish women in smaller regions, and the prevailing tendency to focus primarily on the challenges faced by women at the lower strata of society, this research serves as a valuable contribution towards a more comprehensive understanding of the lives of this particular cohort of Kurdish women residing in the modest city of Mahabad. By delving into the dimensions of employment and the quality of their marital relationships, this study strives toward shedding light on the positive impacts of women’s participation on their family dynamics. The insights gleaned from this research hold the potential to serve as a model that can be extrapolated to benefit women in other regions across the Middle East in the future.

Stories of women's marriage and fertility experiences:Qualitative research on urban and rural cases in Bali, Indonesia.

As a Hindu-majority province in Indonesia, Bali presents a unique and distinctive culture. Patrilocal ( purusa) marriage and patrilineal inheritance as a continuation of the patriarchal system puts a male in the key role of family representative and successor. Having a son is a priority for a married couple in Balinese society. As a consequence, Balinese women experience several constraints related to their economic productive, reproductive, and adat (ritual) roles. When a family does not have a male heir, their daughter is pressed to find a spouse willing to accept sentana (daughter succession) marriage. This secondary form of marriage brings another complication for Balinese-Hindu women and does not necessarily relieve their submissive position. This study analyzes Balinese-Hindu women's perspectives on their marriage experiences and fertility decisions in patrilineal society in changing rural and urban conditions. The data was collected in two areas representing rural (Gianyar) and urban (Denpasar) locations in Bali Province, Indonesia from November 2019 to February 2020. Primary data was based on in-depth interviews of six rural and six urban married Balinese-Hindu women. This qualitative inquiry into Balinese women's experience of the marriage system and fertility options in urban and rural Bali revealed varying degrees of social expectation to provide male descendants for their families. At the same time, economic burdens still haunted them in this development era and manifested conflicting implications for family size. Their stories of purusa and sentana marriage were complex because it has strongly associated with customary law ( adat) in traditional society. Paradoxically, this study found that it was predominantly rural women who opted for the sentana arrangement and expressed a preference for smaller family sizes. This study explores women's fertility aspirations, notably regarding son precedence. It problematizes the sentana marriage alternative as a potential solution to alleviate the expectations and burdens placed on women.

Factors Associated with Sexual Intercourse Frequency Among South African Women: Evidence from a National Cross-sectional Survey

Background: Engaging in regular healthy sexual intercourse activities is good for human health and well-being. Greater sexual intercourse frequency (SIF) for people in relationships is often associated with well-being, greater relationship satisfaction, reduced mortality, increased life expectancy, positive emotions and happiness, while lack of sexual activity is usually associated with depression and marital disharmony. Aim: The primary purpose of this study is to identify the factors associated with SIF among women in South Africa. Data and Methods: The South African Demographic and Health Survey 2016 data were used, and the negative binomial regression model (NBRM) was employed for analysis. Results: Age was significantly associated with high SIF (IRR = 1.02; p < .001). African women had significantly higher SIF than Indian/Asian women (IRR = 1.28; p = .049). Married women had a significantly higher SIF than women who were never married (IRR = 1.42; p < .001). Women who resided in urban areas were significantly associated with higher SIF than women who resided in rural areas (IRR = 1.14; p < .001). Conclusion: Being young, being Indian/Asian, being unmarried, and residing in rural areas is associated with low SIF, whereas being older, being African, being married, and staying in urban areas is associated with high SIF. Generally, without violating cultural, religious and societal beliefs, married women should be taught about the benefits of sexual intercourse activity (SIA) and be encouraged not to be ashamed of entering into sexual intercourse activities.

Determining domestic violence against women using machine learning methods: The case of Türkiye.

Domestic violence against women is a pervasive issue globally, representing a severe violation of human rights and a significant public health concern. The hidden nature of such violence and its frequent underreporting make it a critical area for research. Recent advancements in artificial intelligence offer new avenues for identifying and predicting instances of domestic violence through machine learning (ML) algorithms. This study aimed to determine the frequency and risk factors of domestic violence against women using ML methods. With a cross-sectional design, this research was conducted with 630 married women between December 2023 and February 2024. Data were obtained using the 'Demographic Information Form' and the 'HITS Domestic Violence Scale'. Data analysis used six ML algorithms (decision tree, random forest, support vector machine [SVM], logistic regression [LR], Naive Bayes and k-nearest neighbour). In our study, the rate of women experiencing violence was determined to be 11%, while the duration of marriage, number of children and level of education were identified as significant risk factors. Threat, insult and injury were common risk factors in all algorithms. SVM and LR algorithms were effective models in predicting violence with a 100% accuracy rate. All ML algorithms' sensitivity ranged from 91.12% to 100%, while specificity ranged from 85% to 100%. The findings of our study demonstrate that ML algorithms have high accuracy rates in determining the frequency and risk factors of domestic violence against women, indicating that they can be used safely.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Wet Mount and PCR Methods in Diagnosing Trichomonas vaginalis Infections in Endocervical and Urine samples

Trichomonas vaginalis is the cause of trichomonas’s infection, which is referred to be the global sexually transmitted disease (STD) worldwide. This parasite primarily spreads through sexual activity, though it can also spread through intimate. Vaginal inflammation in females causes a variety of clinical symptoms, such as a profusion of greenish-yellow, frothy, foul-smelling discharge, valvar enlargement, itching, and punctate erythematous lesions of the cervix, commonly referred to as "strawberry cervix." There are numerous scenarios in which women may be sick but not exhibit any symptoms. The purpose of the current study is to compare the diagnostic efficacy of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and wet mount preparation for detecting T. vaginalis in various sample types, including endocervical discharge, endocervical swabs, and urine, of 300 female patients (married and single), ages ranging from 15 to 62, who were referred to Dohuk Maternity Hospital, Shariya Camp, either inside or outside of Dohuk city. Based on the clinical symptoms of the patients, the diagnosis of parasite infection was validated by microscopically confirming the infection in the laboratory using two methods: PCR and direct wet mount preparation. The study findings demonstrated, out of 240 samples, 61 (25.4%) at Dohuk Maternity Hospital and 15 (25%) out of 60 samples in Shariya Camp were contaminated with T. vaginalis. Of the 300 samples, 74 (24.6%) had wet mount preparation infection, and 75 (25.0%) had PCR infection. In the current study, 42 single women had 10 (23.8%) and 258 married women had 66 (25.5%) infected. The age range of 15 to 25 had a higher infection rate (32.8%).

Sexual Function and Quality of Life in Iranian Women With Human Papillomavirus Infection.

Considering the prevalence of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection and the lack of HPV vaccination program in Iran among young women and the importance of quality of life and sexual performance in women, we decided to conduct a study to examine the relationship between HPV infection and sexual dysfunction and quality of life in Iranian women. In this cohort study, 250 married women who infected with HPV were recruited via convinence sampling from colposcopy clinic of Arash women hospital (Tehran, Iran) from April 2020 to May 2022.They were evaluated concerning their sexual function in the domains of desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction and pain with the female sexual function index (FSFI) questionnaire (the total FSFI score is calculated by the sum of the nineteen items). Sexual quality of life-female (SQOL-F) items (Likert-type scale with a cut-off of 65 points) were organized into four sub-scales: psychosexual feelings, sexual and relationship satisfaction, self-worthlessness, and sexual repression. All patients filled out the female sexual function index (FSFI) and sexual quality of life (SQOL) questionnaires. Variables were analysed via correlation coefficient and linear regression tests. Mean age and mean marriage duration were 38.5±4.5 and 12.2±7.2, respectively. There was a weak correlation between FSFI and SQOL (r=0.15, p=0.001).Time of marriage and genital warts were the predictors on the FSFI and SQOL. The findings suggest that HPV infection can impair sexual function and quality of life. This research contributes valuable insights, especially considering the prevalence of HPV.

Exploring the Persistent Challenges of Reproductive Health Management: Analyzing Use of Contraception Among Wives Across Four Provinces in Pakistan Utilizing MICS Data

This study examines factors influencing contraceptive use among married women aged 15-49 in Pakistan using data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS). This research aims to identify the demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors contributing to this disparity, focusing on the four provinces (Punjab, Sindh, KPK, and Balochistan). The study employs secondary analysis of data from over 103,000 women, exploring the association of CPR with variables such as age, education, economic status, fertility preference, and internalized patriarchy. Geographically, 40.9% of the sample was from Punjab, 23% from KPK, 18.8% from Balochistan, and 17.3% from Sindh, with 72.3% residing in rural areas and 27.3% in urban areas. Findings contribute to understanding provincial disparities and highlight the need for localized, culturally sensitive family planning strategies in Pakistan. The study calls for targeted interventions to improve birth control use among rural, less-educated, and poorer women, especially in Sindh and Balochistan.

Food Insecurity and Women's Choice of Reversible Contraceptives: Differential Effects by Maternal Age.

We investigated the relationships between food insecurity (FI) and women's choice of reversible contraceptives, overall and according to the level of method effectiveness, among partnered women of reproductive age in Nigeria. This population-based cross-sectional analysis used nationally representative data from Round 6 of the UNICEF-supported Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) conducted in Nigeria. The sample included married or in-union women aged 15-49 years who reported a live birth in the last 2 years preceding the survey (unweighted N = 8496). Survey-weighted multivariable binomial and multinomial logistic regression analyses were performed to generate estimates of the association between FI (none, moderate, and severe) and reversible contraceptive use (overall and by method effectiveness). A Bonferroni correction was used to account for multiple testing. We stratified the models by maternal age to describe the experiences of women aged 15-24 years, 25-34 years, and 35-49 years. Overall, 6438 (74.1%) of the women in the sample experienced food insecurity (moderate, n = 2559, 30.7%; severe, n = 3879, 43.4%). In the adjusted model, we observed no statistically significant association between experiencing MFI and SFI and the use of reversible contraceptives (overall and specific) after adjustment for multiple testing. The stratified analyses showed that among women aged 25-34 years in the sample, those experiencing SFI in the past 12 months, compared to their food-secure counterparts, had significantly lower odds of reporting the use of a least effective contraceptive method (OR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.34-0.83; p = 0.0052). However, this failed to reach the significance threshold upon adjustment for multiple testing. We found no significant association between the FI levels and use of reversible contraceptives (overall and specific) among partnered women (15-49 years) in Nigeria who were 2 years postpartum following a live birth and who were at risk of pregnancy.

Financing Fertility

This article explore works by five authors who deal with the financial costs of trying to get pregnant, being pregnant and giving birth in Japan today. It explores new reproductive technologies and the problems when people other than married women try to access them. The underlying message is that if a woman wants to try something her own way then there are steep costs associated with it and perhaps, by alleviating these costs, this could contribute to increasing the birthrate.

Attachment Anxiety, Marital Adjustment and Psycho-Social Support of Love and Arranged Marriages Among Meranao Women

This study aims to explore the level of attachment anxiety, marital adjustment, pyscho-social support of love and arranged marriages among Meranao women specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: 1.What is the demographic profile of the respondents in love marriage and arranged marriages in terms of present age, age at the time of marriage, family monthly income, number of children and sibling rank? 2. What is the level of attachment related anxiety, the marital adjustment of the respondents in love and arranged marriages among the following aspects psychological, social, emotional and spiritual? 3. What are the marital adjustment of the respondents in love and arranged marriages when classified as social, physical, financial and spiritual? 4. What is the level of marital quality of the respondents in love and arranged marriages on the following aspects; commitment, trust and mutual interaction? 5. What are the forms of marital support of the respondents in love and arrange marriages receive in terms of psychological, confidant, affective and social support? 6. How do love marriages differ from arranged marriages along the following along the following aspects; level of attachment anxiety, marital adjustment, level of marital quality and marital support? 7. What marriage counseling program has been developed on the basis of the findings of the study. This study was conducted at Tuca, Pindolonan and Dawayan, Marawi City with the total number of 327 married Meranao women, with a breakdown of 132 for love marriage and 195 for arranged marriage. The researcher utilized the descriptive–correlation design. Part of study was done through describing the demographic profile of the respondents and personal profile in terms of age, gender, socio economic status, educational attainment, monthly income and occupation. Their perceptions on their marriage particularly on attachment anxiety, marital adjustment, marital quality and marital support were also given descriptions. On the other hand, these two important variables were then correlated so as to establish a conclusion that a wife’s profile can affect her perception on her marriage life.

COVID‐19 Pandemic and Women's Age at Marriage: New Evidence From India

AbstractA rich literature has documented the relationship between age at marriage and girls’ health and educational outcomes. The upheaval caused by the pandemic on household decision‐making has been hypothesized to have influenced the age of marriage, but the direction of impact is unclear. On the one hand, the pandemic may have increased the age at marriage if lockdown policies and negative income shocks to families placed a burden on household wealth and the ability to pay for weddings. On the other hand, the age of marriage could have decreased during the pandemic due to school closures that kept girls out of school, parental deaths that encouraged families to expedite weddings, and lower wedding costs because of government mandates to have smaller weddings. Using data from the National Family Health Survey of 2019–2021 of India, we explore how the pandemic impacted age at marriage for women using district and household fixed effects models. After accounting for secular trends in the age of marriage and contingent on the model and specification, we find a significant increase in age at marriage for women who got married during the pandemic by 1.1–1.2 years as compared with those married before the pandemic.

Predictors of genital self-image in Iranian women: a cross-sectional study.

Several factors influence women's perception of their genitalia. Understanding the elements associated with genital self‑image (GSI) can significantly contribute to enhancing women's sexual experiences. Therefore, the present study aimed to identify the predictors of GSI in Iranian women. This online cross-sectional study was conducted on 722 healthy married reproductive-aged women with records in Amol-Iran health centers during 2022. Participants were selected using a random sampling method from all the healthcare centers. Data were collected through a checklist of socio-demographic and obstetrics information, the Female Genital Self-Image Scale (FGSI), the 6-item Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI-6), the Female Sexual Distress Scale - revised (FSDS-R), and the Multidimensional Sexual Self-Concept Questionnaire (MSSCQ) for assessing sexual esteem and sexual satisfaction. The general linear model was employed to assess the impact of each independent variable (socio-demographic and obstetrics characteristics, sexual function, sexual distress, sexual esteem, and sexual satisfaction) on the dependent variable (GSI). The mean score of GSI was 21.70 ± 3.82. Based on the Pearson correlation test, there were significant correlations between GSI and sexual function, sexual esteem, sexual satisfaction, and sexual distress (r = 0.20, r = 0.43, r = 0.42, r = -0.28 respectively; p < 0.001). Using the adjusted general linear model, with the increasing scores of sexual esteem and sexual satisfaction, the GSI score also increased (β = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.10 to 0.27, β = 0.14, 95% CI: 0.06 to 0.22, respectively; p < 0.001). Additionally, age, abnormal vaginal discharge, genital feedback from partners, and satisfaction with body image were identified as other predictors of GSI. Based on the study results, it was observed that sexual esteem, sexual satisfaction, and certain socio-demographic variables served as predictors of GSI. Consequently, considering the potential impact of GSI on various aspects of women's lives, healthcare providers can enhance their counseling techniques to improve GSI by gaining an appropriate understanding of the factors that influence it.

MOTIVATING AND ACHIEVEMENT FACTORS OF MARRIED FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS IN INDIA: UNVEILING THE KEYS TO SUCCESS

In contemporary times, enterprises run by married women have emerged as a rapidly expanding entrepreneurship group in Tamil Nadu, India. This study explores the influential factors that drive married women to initiate and succeed in their own businesses and to explain their levels of achievement. Based on the insights collected from interviews, observation and focus groups comprised of 50 entrepreneurs, we developed an instrument that included five variables that relate to the driving factors (freedom, spousal support, flexibility, respect and identity) and five variables that relate to the achievement factors (experience, education, government assistance, networks and unique traits/ competencies) of entrepreneurship among married women. Using survey data from 150 entrepreneurs, we further examined key relationships. Among other findings, this study highlights the central role of spousal support as a driving force for the greater success of married female entrepreneurs. The implications of the study findings are examined for both academics and practitioners, and recommendations are given.

Career Paths and Curriculum Relevance of Master of Arts in Home Economics Education Graduates: A tracer Study

The study was conducted to trace the graduates of the Master of Arts in Home Economics Education from SY 2010-2023. Thirty-nine out of forty-three graduates participated in the study at workplaces in Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, Davao de Oro, and abroad. A survey questionnaire patterned from the CHED Graduate Tracer Study with some modifications was used to collect information and sent through Google Forms, messenger, and email. The collected information was tabulated and analyzed, and the information was presented in the form of tables and graphs. Information from the socio-demographic and educational profile was presented as graphs and tables. The Likert scale was used to analyze the curriculum and work-skill-related factors. The study's results revealed that the MAHEED graduates comprised primarily of married women between 31-35 years old. Most remained as MAHEED graduates and did not pursue a PhD program. The primary reason for pursuing the MAHEED program is for promotion. Most of them are NC2, NC3, and TM TESDA holders. Most of them work regularly in the Department of Education as Teacher II. The curriculum-related factors were rated very relevant, with the major courses ranked first in relevance to the employability and promotion of MAHEED graduates. The work-related factors were also rated very relevant, with critical thinking ranked first in relevance to the employability and promotion of MAHEED graduates.

Exploring the Socio-personal Factors Associated with the Prevalence of Symptoms of Reproductive Tract Infections among Sexually Active Married Women in Ernakulam District of Kerala, India

Abstract Background: Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs)/Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are the main cause of maternal mortality and morbidity in India. The prevalence of the symptoms of RTIs was found to be very high in community-based studies. However only a few studies have explored the factors associated with it. This study aims to determine the socio-personal factors associated with the prevalence of symptoms of RTIs among sexually active married women in Ernakulam district of Kerala. Material and Methods: The study adopted a cross-sectional approach and was conducted among 640 married women in the reproductive age group. Results: The prevalence of the symptoms of RTIs was found to be 56.9% and about 60.16% of them had experienced multiple symptoms. Multivariate analysis showed that those women living in the urban areas (OR: 0.49, 95% CI: 0.334, 0.719), having no previous history of obstetric/gynecological risk factors (OR: 1.89, 95% CI: 1.119, 3.19) and using both clothes and sanitary pads interchangeably during menstruation (OR: 0.46, 95% CI: 0.282, 0.734) were found to be at less risk of contracting RTIs. Conclusion: The use of sanitary pads along with cloth pads can be enhanced rather than only using reusable cloths during menstruation. Also, efforts to improve the reproductive health of the women and reduce the obstetric/gynaecological risk factors should be devised to curtail the peak of RTIs.

Pregnancy intentions and outcomes among young married women in Nepal

BackgroundApproximately 44% of Nepalese women ages 15–49, desiring to avoid pregnancy, do not use modern contraceptives, resulting in an estimated 539,000 unintended pregnancies annually. ObjectivesThis study aims to investigate the association between young, newly married women's pregnancy intentions and subsequent pregnancies. Study designData were collected longitudinally from 200 recently married women aged 18–25 in Nepal. Surveys conducted every six months over 18 months covered various health domains. The study used mixed-effects logistic regression models to account for repeated measurement of correlated data over time. The primary outcome was pregnancy. Pregnancy intention was determined based on responses to, “When would you like to have a child in case you were to have one?” Participants were recategorized into a dichotomous variable for analytical purposes: “Right away” or “Not right away.” ResultsA total of 133 participants became pregnant during the study, with sociodemographic characteristics showing minimal differences between pregnant and nonpregnant groups. Women intending to become pregnant right away had significantly higher odds of becoming pregnant (OR, 4.03; 95% CI, 2.51–6.48) after adjusting for covariates. Among those not intending immediate pregnancy, over 70% became pregnant, suggesting potential barriers to achieving reproductive goals. ConclusionsYoung, newly married women in Nepal intending immediate pregnancy have higher odds of becoming pregnant. However, a substantial proportion of those hoping to delay pregnancy still experience unintended pregnancies, indicating challenges in meeting reproductive goals. The findings underscore the need for addressing barriers to contraceptive access and societal norms impacting women's reproductive autonomy in Nepal.

Exploring factors associated with uptake of breast cancer screening among a subset of women in a South African metropolitan area: research to inform public health interventions

Aim Breast cancer represents a significant global health concern and remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality, particularly among women in developing countries. Despite the South African Department of Health recommending early breast cancer detection to improve overall survival rates and enhance patients’ quality of life, there is lack of awareness among women regarding the importance of regular breast cancer screening and available options. This study investigates the factors associated with breast cancer screening uptake among a subset of women attending public health services in a South African metropolitan area. Methods A cross-sectional survey of adult women attending primary health care services at a community health centre was conducted in February-March 2020. Data on sociodemographics, health beliefs, access to information, and breast cancer screening uptake were subjected to descriptive and logistic regression analyses. Results Out of 252 women, 48.0% were older than 30 years, 69.4% were unemployed, and 56.0% self-reported breast cancer screening non-uptake. After adjusting for other variables, marital status, employment status, home language, and perceived breast cancer screening benefits were significantly associated with breast cancer screening uptake. Married women were twice (AoR: 2.3; CI: 1.19-4.58) as likely to self-report breast cancer screening than their unmarried counterparts. Employed women were almost thrice (AoR: 2.6; CI: 1.41-4.83) as likely to self-report breast cancer screening uptake relative to unemployed women. Women whose home language was Sesotho were almost twice (AoR: 1.9; CI: 1.05-3.43) as likely to self-report breast cancer screening than women reporting other home languages. Self-reported uptake of breast cancer screening was also more likely with every unit increase in perceived benefit scores (AoR: 1.1; CI: 1.02-1.16). Conclusions A significant proportion of women were in the age range where breast cancer screening is typically recommended, with more than half self-reporting breast cancer screening non-uptake. Results highlight the necessity of addressing socioeconomic, cultural and individual perceptions to improve breast cancer screening rates and promote early detection.

Association between child marriage and high blood glucose level in women: A birth cohort analysis

ObjectivesChild marriage prematurely forces girls (<18 years of age) to perform adult roles prior to physical and psychological maturity. Such precocious transitions to young adulthood can have consequences on their long-term health, however, limited work has examined such relationships to date. As such, this study examines whether child marriage is associated with the risk of having hyperglycemia, or high blood glucose, in adulthood. Study designObservational study using repeated cross-sectional data. MethodsUsing data from the 2015-16 and 2019-21 waves of the India National Family Health Survey, we matched 432,080 and 418,409 women, aged 20 to 49 years, by birth year and month to create birth cohorts. Fitting multivariable binomial and multinomial logistic models, we compared the odds of having hyperglycemia across groups by marriage age (i.e., before or after age 18 years) within respective birth cohorts. ResultsWe found that the adjusted odds of having high blood glucose among women married as children were 1.12 (95% CI: 1.07 – 1.16) times that of their peers married as adults in the full-sample. The adjusted relative risks of having blood glucose levels higher than normal but lower than diabetic and diabetic ranges were 1.09 (95% CI: 1.04 – 1.14) and 1.23 (95% CI: 1.15 – 1.31), respectively, in comparison to blood glucose within normal range. These results were persistent across sub-groups of different birth cohorts. ConclusionOur findings suggest that child marriage was associated with higher risk of having high blood glucose in women, later in life.

Reconstituting the ‘good woman’: Gendered visual politics on social media during 2021 state election in West Bengal, India

This paper explores the visual politics of gender in electoral politics in West Bengal (WB). We examine how women political candidates visually construct their non-verbal political performance on social media, and how such visuals relate to social mores and societal expectations surrounding femininity. Drawing on theories of the social construction of gender and visual political communication, we conducted a content analysis of 1,033 visual artefacts from eight individual women candidates and 205 from the Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) pages of the four main political parties taking part in the January-April 2021 electoral campaign for state-level elections in WB. We analysed how these candidates construct gendered relationships with the electorate through different cues on the platforms, such as sartorial choices (traditional or Western attire), use of culture-specific religious symbols (sindoor or vermillion, bindi – forehead marking worn by married Hindu women), and gendered/non-gendered political actions like cooking or serving food, giving speeches or meeting constituents in political processions. Our findings about the visually performed politics show a combination of cultural, political, and gender signifiers, which are mediated and remain connected to societal expectations, and historical narratives. The candidates’ negotiation of these aspects, in turn, underscores a reproduction of colonial legacies and, in the present day, an ongoing production of societal differences. This study contributes to the growing body of literature on visual politics of gender, particularly in Asian contexts. It sheds light on the nuanced ways women politicians use social media to construct their visual identities, and how the deployment of body politics into the relatively ‘new’ online sphere reifies ‘old’ social, political, cultural symbolisms, and norms regarding gender. In this way, this article highlights the importance of considering pre-digital forms of gendered identity construction and visual representation when analysing the contested terrain of digital visibilities.