Women In Nepal Research Articles

The Impact of Changes In Women’s Status on Eating Patterns Among Newly Married Women In Nepal

Abstract Objectives Gender norms in South Asia often lead women, especially younger newly married women, to eat last in the household, not eat enough food and/or have poor diet quality. Low BMI and poor nutritional intake among preconception and pregnant women, and subsequent adverse birth and growth outcomes, are still common. We hypothesize that factors that increase women's status in the household, including becoming pregnant, giving birth, being in school and paid work, might lead to improvements in food consumption and quality. This should especially be true for pregnancy and childbirth given decades of programs and policies aiming to improve nutrition pre-pregnancy. Our objective is to explore how the change in four factors associated with women's status are associated with changes in newly married women's eating practices. Methods We collected 4 rounds of panel data over 18 months from 200 newly married women (married in the last 3 months) living in 2 municipalities of Nepal in 2018–2019. Using mixed effects models, we explored the impact of (1) becoming pregnant, (2) giving birth, (3) being in school and (4) paid work outside the home, on women reporting that she ate last in the household always/most of the time; ate 3 or more meals a day; ate iron rich foods all/most days; and a higher dietary diversity. Results Controlling for other socio-economic demographics, pregnancy or giving birth was not associated with improvement in any eating practices. An individual woman starting to work outside the home was associated with her having a lower odds of eating last. A woman dropping out of school was associated with a reduced odds of eating iron rich foods most days and eating 3 + meals a day. Conclusions Programs and policies aiming to improve women's access to high quality and quantity of food when they become pregnant or give birth do not seem to be leading to desired improvements in this setting—other approaches are needed to encourage families to give high-risk women more and higher quality food. Other factors associated with women's status and empowerment do appear to increase women's access to food and nutrition related resources. Families thus appear to value investing in women when they are contributing to household resources or appear to have future potential to do so, which may contribute to higher negotiating power for women. Funding Sources National Institute of Child Health and Development.

Population-Based HIV Prevalence, Anti-Trans Stigma and HIV Risk Among Trans Women in Nepal

Background: Transgender women in Nepal are underserved in the HIV response. Research is needed to determine the HIV prevalence disaggregated from MSM and the impact of stigma on HIV risk to inform trans-specific interventions. Methods: In 2019, we conducted the first population-based HIV behavioral surveillance study of trans women using respondent driven sampling (RDS). We estimated the HIV prevalence for trans women and conducted bivariate and multivariate logistic regression modeling to examine the relationship between HIV risk and stigma. Findings: Trans women participants (N=200) had a mean age of 33 years old. We found a weighted HIV prevalence of 11.3% (95% CI 6·82% - 18·13). We found that depression (OR 0·19, 95% CI 0·07–0·53; p = 0·002) and current engagement in sex work (OR 6·79; 95% CI 1·39–33·22; p = 0·018) were significantly associated with greater odds of condomless receptive anal intercourse. We also found that internalized stigma in hiding gender identity from family (OR 4·41, 95% CI 1·00–19·54; p = 0·051) and enacted stigma of being arrested for being trans (OR 3·63, 95% CI 1·02–12·91; p = 0·047) were significantly associated with greater odds of condomless receptive anal sex in the last 6 months. Felt stigma of believing they were seen by Nepali society as a criminal because of trans identity (OR 4·57; 95% CI 1·67–12·55; p = 0·003) was significantly associated with greater odds of having depression and anxiety. Enacted stigma of ever being sexually abused due to gender identity (OR 13.00; 95% CI 2·63–64·25; p = 0·002) was significantly associated with engaging in sex work. Interpretation: Trans women women are highly impacted by HIV in Nepal, and stigma is an important correlate to HIV-related risk behavior. HIV prevention interventions are needed that address the economic and mental health impacts of stigma towards trans women in Nepal. Funding Statement: National Institutes of Health, Fogarty International Center grant# R21TW011056 Declaration of Interests: All authors declare no competing interests. Ethics Approval Statement: Our study received human subject approval from the University of California, San Francisco, Baldwin Wallace University and the Nepal Health Research Council.

Knowledge and Practice on Reproductive Heath Rights among Married Women in Nepal

Reproductive health rights ensure that people are able to have satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capacity to reproduce with freedom to decide, when and how often to do so. This study aimed to assess the knowledge and practices on reproductive health rights among madhesi married women. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 384 madhesi married women of reproductive age in Sarlahi district conducted from July 2014 to December 2014. Data were entry in Epidata software and analyzed by SPSS 20 version. Of the total 384 respondents most of them (39.3%) were of age group 25-35 years from different ethnic groups. Most were simple illiterate (65.6%) and housewife (60.9%) very few of respondents were knowledge about reproductive health rights (37%) and not statistical significant relationship with level of knowledge and level of practice (χ 1 2 =2.036, p=0.154). Level of knowledge was statistically significant relationship with educational level (χ 4 2 = 43.983 p<0.001). Use of FP services have statistically significant relationship with Age group (p<0.001). The level of knowledge and level of practice on RHRs is still very low in Madhesi women.
 Keywords: Reproductive health rights; Madhesi women; practice

Factors Associated with Non-Use of Contraceptives among Married Women in Nepal

Most of the family planning services are being provided free of cost in Nepal however threat of service utilization appears unsatisfactory. This paper aims to assess the factors that are associated with non-use of family planning services among currently married women of reproductive age. The data for this paper are extracted from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), 2016. Altogether 9875 currently married women of reproductive age were included in this analysis. Bivariate and multivariate analysis were performed to explore the association of socio-demographic characteristics with non-use of contraceptives. Almost a half of the sampled currently married women (47%) were non-users of contraception. Married women aged below 25 years (aOR=2.07, 95% CI 1.75-2.44) and aged 25 to 34 year (aOR=1.15, 95% CI 1.02-1.29)were more likely to not to use contraceptives compared to women aged 35 or above years. Janajati were less likely to be non-user of contraception compared to Brahmin/Chhetri (aOR=0.73, 95% CI 0.64-0.83). Muslim women were less likely to use contraception (aOR= 2.45, 95% CI 1.9-3.2) compared to Hindu women. Likewise, women who did not work currently were more likely to not use contraceptives compared to currently working women (aOR=1.47, 95% CI 1.32-1.63).Similarly, poor women were less likely to not use contraception compared to rich women (aOR=1.15, 95% CI 1.01-1.32).Similarly, women who had no autonomy were more likely to be non-user of contraceptive (aOR=1.16, 95%CI 1.01-1.32) than those how had high autonomy. Women who had not heard family planning message from TV in last few months were more likely to not use contraceptives (aOR=1.16, 95%CI 1.02-1.31) than those who had heard after controlling other socio-economic variables. Women aged less than 25 years, Muslim women, currently not working and having poor wealth status, having no autonomy in household decision making, who did not watch FP message in TV were more likely to not use contraceptive methods compared to their counter parts. Thus, family-planning-related interventions need to be more focused among younger aged women, women having no or less autonomy in decision making, poor and jobless women and Muslim women. Furthermore, women empowerment initiatives (employment opportunities) tied up with family planning programs would be beneficial to increase contraceptive uptake among married women of reproductive age.

Empowerment as a Predictor of HIV Testing Among Married Women in Nepal.

We examined the association of women empowerment and HIV testing in Nepalese women. Data from the 2012 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey provided a sample of 6,579 females ages 15-49 years. Women empowerment subcategories included participation in decision making, attitudes about safer sex negotiation, and sexual autonomy. Only 454 participants (6.9%) had been tested for HIV. Of note, 41.3% had high participation in decision making, 84.5% showed positive attitudes about safer sex negotiation, and 71.8% scored high in sexual autonomy. After adjusting potential confounders, the odds of being tested were higher for women with positive attitudes about safer sex negotiation (adjusted odds ratio = 1.444, 95% confidence interval: 1.006-2.072, p = .046) and high sexual autonomy (adjusted odds ratio = 3.138, 95% confidence interval: 1.375-7.164, p = .007). Age, education, and wealth were independent factors determining the women's HIV testing approach. Our study can be a guide for interventions and policies to empower women and encourage HIV testing in Nepal.

Factors Associated with Non-Institutional Delivery among Pregnant Women in Nepal

Delivery location may influence maternal morbidity and mortality, especially in developing countries such as Nepal. The aim of this study was to determine factors associated with place of delivery among pregnant women in Nepal in order to inform health policy makers attempting to improve mother and child health. Data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, conducted in 2014, were retrospectively reviewed. In the survey, women aged 15-49 years were interviewed face-to-face using a structured questionnaire. Study subjects were women who had giving birth within the previous two years. A total of 2,086 women (48.9%) had non-institutional delivery (46.5% at home). Logistic regression models were used to identify significant factors influencing non-institutional delivery. Results showed that increasing educational level and wealth quintile index corresponded to a decreasing percentage of non-institutional delivery. More than half (55.5%) of women from rural areas had a non-institutional delivery. Multiparous women (57.2%) and those having less than 4 antenatal care visits (66.8%) had relatively higher rates of non-institutional delivery. In conclusion, there is a need to intensify education for pregnant women, especially those who have had previous childbirth experience. It is also crucial to target women from poor households, to increase their awareness, and promote institutional delivery.

A Novel Method to Measure Resilience in Nutrition: Application to Diets and Body Mass Index of Rural Women in Nepal and Bangladesh (FS01-02-19)

ObjectivesThis study aimed to demonstrate feasibility of a novel method for measuring resilience in dietary diversity (DD) and body mass index (BMI) of rural women of reproductive age (WRA) in Nepal and Bangladesh. Resilience is defined as the population’s ability to recover from adverse shocks, measured relative to statistical mean reversion. MethodsWe used regionally representative surveys from Nepal (n = 2187) and Bangladesh (n = 1715) collected annually in Nepal (four panels, 2013–2016) and every 6 months in Bangladesh (3 panels, 2016–2017), for BMI (kg/m2) and DD using 10 food groups (7-day qualitative diet recall, Nepal) and 6 food groups (24-hour diet recall, Bangladesh). We estimated where i is the woman, y is the outcome of interest, and z is a vector of controls. ∆yi, t+j denotes change in y between t + j-1 and t + j. Declinedi,t+1 equals 1 if the change between t and t + 1 is negative, zero otherwise. β2 measures the degree of reversal in decline controlling for mean reversion (β1) and other differences (age, age2, age cube, and socioeconomic status). β2 = 0 is our benchmark of mean reversion around the trend, i.e., recoveries after decline are not significantly different from declines after recovery. ResultsOur technique revealed significant (P < 0.01) resilience of DD in Nepal (Figure 1, Panel A). Among 1682 women in the Terai region, 47% (n = 784) experienced an initial decline in DD, and 61% of that initial decline was recovered. Mean reversion removed only 25% of the initial change among those who gained. We found no significant resilience in Bangladesh (Figure 1, Panel B) or for BMI in either country. ConclusionsThe resilience of DD in Nepal could reflect food aid responses to the 2015 earthquake or other interventions, while lack of resilience in BMI could reflect time lags, measurement errors or limits on the speed and timing of weight change. Lack of resilience of DD in Bangladesh could reflect shorter time intervals. Future work will apply this method to test for differences in resilience associated with exposure to programmatic interventions. Funding SourcesSupport provided by Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Nutrition, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Supporting Tables, Images and/or Graphs▪

A Novel Method to Measure Resilience in Nutrition: Application to Diets and Body Mass Index of Rural Women in Nepal and Bangladesh (FS01-02-19)

ObjectivesThis study aimed to demonstrate feasibility of a novel method for measuring resilience in dietary diversity (DD) and body mass index (BMI) of rural women of reproductive age (WRA) in Nepal and Bangladesh. Resilience is defined as the population’s ability to recover from adverse shocks, measured relative to statistical mean reversion. MethodsWe used regionally representative surveys from Nepal (n = 2187) and Bangladesh (n = 1715) collected annually in Nepal (four panels, 2013–2016) and every 6 months in Bangladesh (3 panels, 2016–2017), for BMI (kg/m2) and DD using 10 food groups (7-day qualitative diet recall, Nepal) and 6 food groups (24-hour diet recall, Bangladesh). We estimated where i is the woman, y is the outcome of interest, and z is a vector of controls. ∆yi, t+j denotes change in y between t + j-1 and t + j. Declinedi,t+1 equals 1 if the change between t and t + 1 is negative, zero otherwise. β2 measures the degree of reversal in decline controlling for mean reversion (β1) and other differences (age, age2, age cube, and socioeconomic status). β2 = 0 is our benchmark of mean reversion around the trend, i.e., recoveries after decline are not significantly different from declines after recovery. ResultsOur technique revealed significant (P < 0.01) resilience of DD in Nepal (Figure 1, Panel A). Among 1682 women in the Terai region, 47% (n = 784) experienced an initial decline in DD, and 61% of that initial decline was recovered. Mean reversion removed only 25% of the initial change among those who gained. We found no significant resilience in Bangladesh (Figure 1, Panel B) or for BMI in either country. ConclusionsThe resilience of DD in Nepal could reflect food aid responses to the 2015 earthquake or other interventions, while lack of resilience in BMI could reflect time lags, measurement errors or limits on the speed and timing of weight change. Lack of resilience of DD in Bangladesh could reflect shorter time intervals. Future work will apply this method to test for differences in resilience associated with exposure to programmatic interventions. Funding SourcesSupport provided by Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Nutrition, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Supporting Tables, Images and/or Graphs▪

Factors Associated With Stillbirth Among Pregnant Women in Nepal.

Objectives:Stillbirth is a common adverse pregnancy outcome that represents a distressing and traumatic event for women and their partners. The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with stillbirth in ever-pregnant women in Nepal.Methods:This study utilized the individual women’s dataset from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, conducted in 2016. The dependent variable of interest was whether women had at least 1 stillbirth during their lifetime. The associations between independent variables and the dependent variable of the study were analyzed using a multiple logistic regression model.Results:Among 8918 ever-pregnant women aged 15-49 years, 488 had experienced at least 1 stillbirth during their lifetime, representing 5.5% of the total. After adjusting each factor for the confounding effects of other factors, maternal age, maternal education, place of residence, and sub-region remained significantly associated with having experienced stillbirth.Conclusions:Stillbirth continues to be a major problem among women, especially those with higher maternal age, those who are illiterate, and residents of certain geographical regions. To minimize stillbirth in Nepal, plans and policies should be focused on women with low education levels and residents of rural areas, especially in the western mountain and far-western hill regions.

Impact of Microfinance Programmes on Information and Political Empowerment of Women in Nepal

The study covers the impact of microfinance programmes on information and political empowerment of participants located in Dhulikkhel Municipality. 60 women members were selected for the study using judgmental sampling method. Descriptive and explanatory research design has been adopted to fulfil the objectives of the study. The present study concludes that the MFIs are focusing more on saving and lending practices but they have failed to give serious attention towards effective training and insurance services. Microfinance members perceived political empowerment through microfinance programme. However, they pointed out the impact of microfinance programme on information empowerment to some extent. Further, microfinance services and women information empowerment has significant relationship but there is no significant relationship between microfinance services and women political empowerment. It is visualized that marital status and source of income of respondents show difference on political empowerment only. For political empowerment, MFIs need to operate various information sharing activities, training based on income generation and social mobilization. As being grassroots level institutions, MFIs need to focus on capacity enhancement of women for political lead too.

Use of Contraceptive Methods among Young Married Women in Nepal

Nepal has a fairly high adolescent fertility rate and low use of contraception. Lack of contraceptive use is a major contributor to the high rates of unintended pregnancies amongst youth. There is also lack of specific studies dealing with contraceptive behavior among young married women. This study examines the use and determinants of contraceptive methods over the time period of 15 years (2001-2016) among young women in Nepal. Trend and bi-vatiate analysis of this study is based on the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016 data. The multivariate analysis is based on NDHS 2016 data of 2059 currently married non-pregnant young women aged 15-24 years. Logistic regression is used to assess the net effect of independent variables on dependent variable. The study shows that the contraceptive prevalence rate of young women is only 34 percent. Number of living children, spousal separation, husband education, women, occupation, wealth status, caste/ethnic affiliation, fertility preference, decision making status, ideal number of children they prefer and media exposure, are statistically associated to the use of contraception among young women in Nepal. There is a need to strengthen income generating activities so as to improve young women's socio-economic status which will translate into female economic and social empowerment hence ability to discuss sexuality related issues. Family planning programmes should be designed so as to address the contraceptive need of young women especially the low parity and Muslim adolescents.

Fieldwork among Women in Nepal: A Female Researcher Revisits Her Experience

In this paper, I argue, based on in-depth interviews with 75 rural women from 25 households in Nepal nearly eight years ago, that a reflection on fieldwork helps a researcher to critically review and critically appreciate one’s own work and to identify challenges that can be helpful not only to the researcher but also other researchers. I describe three distinct stages of my fieldwork. The first one relates to the image I held regarding rural women’s life and society as well as the information generation techniques I thought I ought to utilize before I actually went to the field. The second stage relates to the learning I gained during the fieldwork regarding rural women’s life and society and the manner in which I actually went about generating information. The third stage relates to how I now reflect back on the lives women lead in rural areas as well as the techniques I utilized to generate information. In the concluding section, I attempt to identify the gains I made while I traversed through the three different stages of research.

Effects of Occupational Hazards on Mental and Reproductive Health of Women in Nepal

Effects of Occupational Hazards on Mental and Reproductive Health of Women in Nepal

3168 - Comparision of Microcolumn Gel Assay and Tube Test for Identification of Anti-D Antibody among RH Negative Pregnant Women in Nepal

Introduction: Pregnant women with a Rh-negative blood group may form Rh-antibodies if fetus has a Rh-positive blood. This sensitisation is likely to occur during birth, but can also happen in late pregnancy. These antibodies can cause anaemia or even death for future babies with RH positive blood from the mother. In pregnant women who are known to be RhD alloimmunized or for whom the prenatal antibody result is positive,anti-D concentration measurement is necessary,both to assess the risk to the fetus and to guide clinical decision-making. Methods: The study was conducted in the lab of Central blood transfusion centre from February to July 2015. During this period a total of 114 samples of RH negative women were processed. Anti-D antibody identification and titration is done by using indirect antiglobulin test by Conventional tube method using indirect antiglobulin technique in normal saline. Then parallel identification was done by Microcolumn gel assay, recommended by AABB manual using indirect antiglobulin technique in LISS (Low Ionic Strength Saline) solution. Results: Among a total of 114 pregnant women with RH negative blood processed during the study period, more than one-third (36%) were of blood group O, one-quarter were blood group A (25%), followed by blood group B (23%) and blood group AB (16%). Patients with blood group O showed the highest proportion of anti-D antibody positive cases (17%) . No case of anti-D antibody was detected among women with blood group AB. Among 114 pregnant women, 13 (11.04%) sample from Rh negative pregnant women were positive for anti D antibody. When comparing the titration approaches, the microcolumn gel assay showed more frequent significant titer value (1:1024) than that of tube method titration value. Among 13 samples positive for anti D antibody, gel method could identify positive for all 13 cases while Tube method showed positive anti D antibody in 12 cases only. Moreover, titre value shown by gel method was higher than that of tube method in all cases. Conclusion: The proportion of anti-D antibody positive cases are still higher in Nepal. Early detection and prevention is required to prevent hemolytic disease of Newborn. To identify anti D antibody, microcolumn gel assay is sensitive than tube method and can be a best alternative to tube method in our setting.

Preference for Sex of Children Among Women in Nepal

The preference for a son at birth is one of the key issues of demographic studies conducted in less-developed countries; however, exploration of preference for sex of children among women in Nepal is rare. This paper estimates the likelihood of preference for a son or a daughter using the 2016 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) data, which contains a nationally representative sample of 12,862 Nepalese women. A multinomial logistic regression analysis shows that son and daughter preferences vary widely across ethnicities, educational and economic status, and rural-urban region. Regarding ethnic origin, women from the Hill Janajati (the largest ethnic minority group that consists of many sub-ethnic groups) prefer daughters more than the top two caste groups, the Hill Brahman and Chhetri, whereas the Terai Brahman, Terai Dalit, Muslim, and other ethnic minority women prefer sons more than the top two caste groups do. Similarly, less educated, poorer, and rural women prefer a son, unlike more educated, richer, and urban women in general. Women who desire more of either sex end up with more children in their household.

Passing the “Torches of Freedom”: Smoking Behaviors of Women in Nepal

ABSTRACTGlobally, men constitute a larger percentage of smokers than women, but the rate of women smokers is growing. Smoking is a feminist issue: there are unique consequences for women's health, well-being, and agency. Recently passed anti-smoking legislation in Nepal, which has the highest rate of women smokers in South Asia, omits gender-conscious recommendations, potentially diminishing the impact of the legislation on women's lives. Relying on the 2001, 2006, and 2011 waves of the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, this paper expands the dialogue around women's smoking and places it at the forefront of research on women's health issues. The results indicate that for women in Nepal, formal education and visiting a health facility mitigate smoking behaviors, whereas being employed and living in certain regions promotes smoking behaviors. The aim is for this and the ensuing inquiries to change government anti-smoking legislation in order to improve women's health.

Unmet Need for Family Planning among Currently Married Young Women in Nepal

A high level of unmet need for contraception persists among currently married young women in Nepal. Evidences about unmet need for family planning and associated factors are not fully analyzed in the Nepalese context. Therefore, this study investigates the prevalence and determinants of unmet need for family planning among currently married young women in Nepal. This is an analytical cross-sectional study through secondary data analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey women data-file. The analysis is based on 2,552 currently married young women aged 15-24 years. Logistic regression is used to assess the net effect of independent variables on dependent variable. Women’s current age, number of living children, education level, occupation, women empowerment, caste/ethnic affiliation, and residence are independent predictors of unmet need. The odds of unmet need are significantly higher among the adolescents, rural, not empowered and not working young women. There is a need to strengthen income generating activities so as to improve their socio-economic status which will translate into female economic and social empowerment which enable them to discuss on sexual issues. Family planning programmes should be designed so as to address the unmet need of young women especially the rural adolescents.

Cervical Cancer Screening Practices and Barriers among Women in Nepal

Cervical cancer is cancer of the cervix which is caused by sexually-acquired infection with Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). Cervical cancer screening is the systematic application of Pap smear test to identify cervical abnormalities in an asymptomatic population. This paper tries to give an overview of cervical cancer screening practices and barriers in Nepal. During preparation of review paper various published Literature were obtained and reviewed from international journal and local newspaper and analyzed. In case of Nepal cervical cancer screening is still not giving high priority by women. Likewise Vaccine against HPV is not yet easily available in Nepal for early detection of cervical cancer due to lack of financial resources. High incidence of cervical cancer result due lack of awareness and knowledge, Pap test and HPV vaccine. Socio-cultural factors, low fund, less laboratory services, lack of privacy and informed consent pose barriers to have routine screening practices.

Ethnic Variations in Perception of Human Papillomavirus and its Vaccination among Young Women in Nepal .

Background: The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is strongly associated with cervical and other cancers. In women, cervical cancer is the third most common cancer. HPV infection can be largely prevented through vaccination of (adolescent) girls. At the same time, Nepal is a low-income country experiencing a cultural change in attitudes towards sex and sexual behaviour. However, in the adolescent population knowledge about HPV, factors associated with an increased risk of HPV and the existence of the vaccination is often low. Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study with female students enrolled in health and non-health science courses in Pokhara, Nepal. The questionnaire included demographic details, knowledge and attitude questions related to HPV, associated risk behaviour and its vaccination. Descriptive statistics, including Chi-Square test, were used to identify statistically significant relationships. Ethical approval was granted by the relevant authority in Nepal. Results: Hindu religion (75.0 %; 95% CI: 70.9, 78.6) and Newari caste (75.5%; CI: 61.1, 86.7) were more aware about HPV, HPV vaccination. Hindus religion (55.6%; 95% CI: 51.2, 60.0) and Dalit caste (61.6%, 95% CI: 53.3, 69.4) more willing to be vaccinated than other religions and other castes, respectively. Not unsurprisingly, students on health-related courses had a greater awareness of HPV, HPV vaccination and were more willing to be vaccinated than students on other courses. Similar patterns of association arose for knowledge related to those sexually active at an early age; HPV risk and multiple sex partners; and fact that condoms cannot fully prevent the transmission of HPV. Conclusion: Knowledge about the link between HPV and (a) early sexual initiation, (b) having multiple sexual partners, and (c) the limited protection of condoms and other birth control measures was poor in our study compared to similar research conducted in other parts of the world. One key implication is the need for education campaigns in Nepal to educate young women and their parents about HPV, its risk factors and the benefits of vaccination. .

Impact of Earthquake on Women of Nepal: An Ecofeminist Perspective

Women experience a host of negative consequences during and after a natural disaster. Ecofeminist theory questions or rejects previously held patriarchal paradigms and holds that the domination of women by men is intimately linked to the destruction of the environment. Since time immemorial women are traditionally involved in protecting and conserving their natural resources. The environmental consequences of natural disaster affect men and women differently. Women have unique value as well as role in environmental governance. A variety of feminist theories have been used to explore this phenomenon. The aim is to posit the need for an ecofeminist perspective on analyzing women‘s vulnerabilities post-natural disaster. An ecofeminist analysis of Nepal women‘s vulnerability in the wake of the April 2015 earthquake will be used to illustrate the utility of the theory. Implications of using ecofeminism in natural disaster research will be discussed.