Women In Germany Research Articles

German Women, Industrial Society, and the Great War: On the Changing Gender Roles

This article attempts to study the process of gender roles transformation of German women under the influence of World War I. Gender history as a social history of the sexes has significant heuristic potential which is why the author uses it as a methodological basis of the research. The recent years have seen an increased interest in war history, the front, and the rear from the gender point of view among researchers. The gender perspective — precisely because it has long remained outside the mainstream — has challenged and fundamentally changed the contemporary historiography of German history. Gender studies demonstrate that debates about war and peace are always also discussions of the gendered social order, or the ideas of “masculinity” and “femininity” at a certain time. For a long time, in historiography, the opinion prevailed that World War I was a decisive factor in the emancipation of women in Germany in the twentieth century. However, studies of the last two decades have convincingly shown that this thesis needs to be corrected at least. The increase in the share of female labour in German industry during the war years corresponded to the pre-war trend and did not exceed it in quantitative terms. Women’s labour in the industry was the lot of the lower classes. Measures of social support of the state for the families of military personnel, on the one hand, contributed to women’s financial independence, and, on the other hand, increased their dependence on it, formed dependents. The inability of the German authorities during the war years to provide for the basic life needs of the population led to widespread illegal activities (larceny, illegal markets) and protests, which together with the military defeat, became one of the main reasons for the November Revolution.

At risk of reproductive disadvantage? Exploring fertility awareness among migrant women in Germany.

This study examined awareness about fertility among immigrant women and non-migrants in Germany. The social relevance of infertility and fertility treatment is increasing in Western countries due to continually low overall birth rates, a high rate of childlessness, and a gap between the desired and actual numbers of children. While there is growing interest in infertility and reproductive medicine in general, previous studies have rarely included immigrant or ethnic minorities in Europe. This study investigated whether knowledge on the age-related fertility decline (ARFD) varies between migrant groups and the majority group, and the role of education. Working hypotheses were drawn from theoretical considerations on frameworks of migrant assimilation. The analysis was based on data collected in a social science pilot study on reproductive medicine, representative of the general population (‘NeWiRe’ 2014–2015). The sample included 962 women aged 18–50 years living in Germany. Approximately 81% of the sample were immigrants who originated from Turkey, Poland, the Balkan countries or countries of the (post-Soviet) Commonwealth of Independent States. While rather poor overall, knowledge on ARFD was found to be significantly lower in the migrant groups compared with the majority group. This minority-group disadvantage cannot be explained by sociodemographic or cultural variables. Future research should include minority groups in empirical studies on awareness about fertility in order to better understand the causes of this disadvantage, and the potential reproductive needs of migrants.

Medical knowledge and information needs among women with pathogenic variants in moderate-risk genes for hereditary breast cancer attending genetic counseling at an academic hospital in Germany-A qualitative approach.

With 69,000 newly diagnosed cases every year, breast cancer (BC) is the most frequent cancer disease among women in Germany. Familial clustering is seen in about 30% of newly diagnosed cases. Besides the high-risk genes BRCA1/2, there are also moderate-risk BC genes (MBCG) that are associated with a 20%-50% risk of BC, such as CHEK2, ATM, and PALB2. In Germany, carriers of pathogenic variants in MBCG receive specific information on their test results, individual risks, and preventive options during genetic counseling for the disclosure of the results in a specialized center. Little is known about the medical knowledge that women have after attending counseling. This study aims to identify the medical knowledge, further information needs, and the possible impact of a lack of information on dealing with everyday life for women with pathogenic variants in MBCG who have attended genetic counseling at an academic hospital in Germany. Problem-centered, guided, individual interviews were conducted with twelve women carrying pathogenic variants in MBCG. The interview guide was developed based on the methods of the problem-centered interview according to Witzel. The interview analysis was based on Mayring's qualitative content analysis. The women were between 29 and 59years old and carried pathogenic variants in the risk genes CHEK2 (n=8), ATM (n=1), or PALB2 (n=3). Several medical uncertainties and information needs emerged from the data, concerning (a) medical terms, (b) risk perception, (c) BC therapy for hereditary BC, (d) lifestyle advice and risk factors, and (e) family planning and risk-reducing mastectomy. Women with pathogenic variants in MBCG might develop their own conceptions regarding the onset of disease and inheritance. In order to meet the need for information and address the uncertainties that may still exist after genetic counseling, structured, evidence-based and comprehensible written information in German should be developed for this group.

Pregnant and breastfeeding women’s attitudes and fears regarding the COVID-19 vaccination

PurposeThe COVID-19 vaccination is probably the most important source to fight the COVID-19 pandemic. However, recommendations and possibilities for vaccination for pregnant and breastfeeding women are inconsistent and dynamically changing.MethodsAn anonymous, online, cross-sectional survey was conducted among pregnant and breastfeeding women in Germany between 30th March and 19th April 2021 addressing COVID-19 vaccination attitudes including the underlying reasons for their decision. Additionally, anxiety regarding a SARS-CoV-2 infection and a symptomatic course of the infection were evaluated.ResultsIn total, 2339 women (n = 1043 pregnant and n = 1296 breastfeeding) completed the survey. During pregnancy the majority (57.4%) are not in favour of receiving the vaccine, 28.8% are unsure and only 13.8% would get vaccinated at the time of the survey. In contrast, 47.2% would be in favour to receive the vaccine, if more scientific evidence on the safety of the vaccination during pregnancy would be available. Breastfeeding women show higher vaccination willingness (39.5% are in favour, 28.1% are unsure and 32.5% not in favour). The willingness to be vaccinated is significantly related to the women’s anxiety levels of getting infected and to develop disease symptoms. Main reasons for vaccination hesitancy are the women’s perception of limited vaccination-specific information, limited scientific evidence on vaccination safety and the fear to harm the fetus or infant.ConclusionsThe results provide important implications for obstetrical care during the pandemic as well as for official recommendations und information strategies regarding the COVID-19 vaccination.

Prevalence of and factors associated with receipt of provider recommendation for influenza vaccination and uptake of influenza vaccination during pregnancy: cross-sectional study

BackgroundSeasonal influenza vaccination has been recommended for pregnant women in Germany since 2010. The aim of this study was to examine prevalence and determinants of receipt of provider recommendation for influenza vaccination as well as influenza vaccination uptake during pregnancy.MethodsWe analysed data from the “KUNO Kids Health Study”, a prospective birth cohort. During the study period (5th July 2015 to 27th June 2018) data were collected from participating mothers by interview and questionnaire. According to Andersen’s behavioural model of health services use potential influencing factors describing the circumstances and characteristics of the mothers and their pregnancies which are potentially affecting whether women receive a recommendation for a vaccination or whether they utilize influenza vaccination were classified into three domains: ‘predisposing characteristics’, ‘enabling resources’ and ‘need’. Using multivariable logistic regression models odds ratios (OR) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated.ResultsAs a combined result across three flu seasons, 368 of 1814 (20.3%) women received an influenza vaccination recommendation during pregnancy. Having had a high-risk pregnancy increased the odds of receiving a vaccination recommendation (OR = 1.3; 95% CI = 1.0–1.6; p = 0.045). In contrast, pregnancy onset in summer (OR = 0.7; 95% CI = 0.5–1.0; p = 0.027), autumn (OR = 0.4; 95% CI = 0.3–0.5; p < =0.001) or winter (OR = 0.5; 95% CI = 0.3–0.6; p < =0.001) (compared to spring) as well as mother’s birthplace outside Germany (OR = 0.6; 95% CI = 0.4–0.9; p = 0.023) reduced the chance of getting a vaccination recommendation.Two hundred forty-two of one thousand eight hundred sixty-five (13%) women were vaccinated against influenza during pregnancy. Having received a vaccination recommendation was strongly associated with vaccination uptake (OR = 37.8; 95% CI = 25.5–55.9; p < =0.001). Higher health literacy status was also associated with a higher chance of vaccination uptake (OR = 1.7; 95% CI = 1.2–2.6; p = 0.008), whereas pregnancy onset in autumn (compared to spring) reduced the chance (OR = 0.5; 95% CI = 0.3–0.8; p = 0.008).ConclusionsAt 13% the uptake rate of influenza vaccination is low. Having received a recommendation to vaccinate was strongly associated with uptake but only one fifth of all mothers report such a recommendation. Raising awareness in physicians regarding vaccinating during pregnancy seems to be of essential importance to increase vaccine uptake and to prevent influenza-related complications in pregnant women.

Othering of Forced Migrant Women in Maternal Care. Becoming a Mother – Being constructed as Other: Results of a qualitative study in Germany

Abstract Refugee women are legally entitled to all necessary medical services related to pregnancy - including medical check-ups, childbirth costs, and midwifery assistance. However, studies indicate that they face structural barriers to maternal care access and are at greater risk of having poor pregnancy outcomes. This study aimed to explore the role of attributions of Otherness and practices of Othering in maternal care and the consequences for the quality of maternal care for forced migrant women in Germany. Qualitative semi-structured problem-centered interviews were conducted in three regions. The study sample includes 64 health care professionals (social workers, midwives, gynecologists) as well as 15 forced migrant women who recently gave birth to a child. Interviews were analyzed via framework analysis to identify perceptions, attitudes, and contextual conditions of providing maternal care to female refugees and to examine their experiences in the German maternity health care system. Most professionals showed an implicit, rarely questioned notion of an ostensible center of motherhood and parenthood. The qualitative results show how forced migrant women are constructed as other to this presupposed center of mothers. The practice of Othering occurs individually by health care professionals as well as structurally by the German asylum system and health care system. Both exclusionary and benevolent processes of Othering come into play. The effects of those attributions of Otherness are described from the perception of refugee new mothers concerning their pathways, resources, and obstacles in maternal care. Opportunities to achieve adequate maternal care for mothers and parents constructed as others from an ostensible and rarely questioned center of motherhood and parenthood are presented and discussed. To face diversity in maternal care, the notion of the center needs to be critically discussed as well as different aspects of consequences of Othering.

“Health Situation of Women in Germany 2020” - The new report of the Federal Health Reporting is published

Abstract Introduction In Germany, there are more than 35 million women. The German Women's Health Report being published in December 2020 by the Federal Health Reporting Unit at the Robert Koch Institute describes their health status. Methods The report uses a broad data basis and shows differences and similarities in the health of women and men (‘differences between') as well as within the group of women (‘differences within'). It includes an overview on their health status, health behaviour and health care. Focus chapters are devoted to health over the life course, specific groups of women, e.g. women with disabilities, and specific health topics, e.g. sexual and reproductive health. Results Women's average life expectancy has been increasing for many decades. Two thirds of women rate their health as good or very good. The most common cause of death among women are cardiovascular diseases, accounting for around 40% of all deaths. Nevertheless, they are still considered as ‘male' diseases, thus women often underestimate their risk of disease. Women are in general more health conscious than men, e.g. they have a healthier diet. Women use prevention measures, health promotion and health care services more often. Two thirds of those in need of care are women and it is mainly women who are responsible for the care of others. Data gaps exist for certain conditions such as benign gynaecological diseases as well as for certain groups of women, e.g. migrant women. Conclusions In Germany, the health status and health care for women are at a high level. But inequalities in the opportunities for a healthy life exist: socio-economic factors such as age, education, occupation, income, family type, migration background and many other aspects have an important impact on their health status. The report provides current data and information for policymakers, science and practice and raises the awareness and the need for sex and gender-appropriate health promotion, prevention and care.

The labor market participation of recently-arrived immigrant women in Germany

Objective: This article investigates the role of motivation in female immigrants' labour force participation. Focusing on recently-arrived immigrants (who have resided in the host country for 18 months or less), we compare the outcomes of two different ethnic groups in Germany: Poles and Turks.&#x0D; Background: The immigrant integration literature tends to focus on the role of resources in immigrant labour market integration. However, when examining particularly the labour force participation of female immigrants, their motivation for joining the labour force is also important. Previous studies of female immigrants in Germany have often neglected this consideration, which includes aspects like culturally-specific gender values and perceived ethnic discrimination.&#x0D; Method: We use data from the SCIP project (Diehl et al., 2015) to conduct logistic regressions on female immigrants’ labour force participation. Our sample includes 829 female immigrants from Poland and Turkey between the ages of 18-60, who were either active in the labour force or were 'at risk' of entering. &#x0D; Results: In line with previous studies, our analysis shows that female immigrants' labour market resources, mainly their prior work experience and German proficiency, greatly reduce the ethnic gap in labour force participation rates. Moreover, motivational factors have a large impact on this outcome for both groups, and greatly enhance the picture that our empirical models present. However, we find no evidence that perceived ethnic discrimination plays an important role. &#x0D; Conclusion: Our analysis indicates that when seeking to understand the labour market participation of female immigrants, their resources and motivation should be seen as key components of a gender-sensitive analysis.

Higher Socioeconomic Status is Associated with Improved Outcomes After Obesity Surgery Among Women in Germany

BackgroundLow socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with an increased prevalence of obesity. It is unknown whether SES influences the outcome after bariatric surgery in Germany. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate whether the SES is linked with an inferior outcome after bariatric surgery.MethodsWe included all patients who underwent bariatric surgery in our university hospital from 2012–2014. Net income was estimated by matching the zip codes of patient residency with the region-specific purchasing power index. We analyzed the relationship between SES, weight loss and remission of comorbidities.ResultsWe included 559 patients in this study and detected a mean 5-year percentage excess weight loss (%EWL) of 52.3%. We detected a significantly lower initial body mass index (BMI) and weight in patients with a higher income. One year after surgery, we did not find a significant difference. Further analysis revealed that only women with a higher income had a significantly lower BMI and weight 3 and 5 years after surgery.ConclusionsBariatric surgery is beneficial for all patients regardless of income. Furthermore, we demonstrated that women with high SES have a better outcome after bariatric surgery.

Significant decline of HPV 6 infection and genital warts despite low HPV vaccination coverage in young women in Germany: a long-term prospective, cohort data analysis

BackgroundThe introduction of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination has resulted in a remarkable decline of genital warts in women and men, but in Germany historical rates of vaccination are relatively low. We report long-term surveillance data on changes in HPV 6 and HPV 11 infection and the prevalence of genital warts in young women in the Wolfsburg HPV epidemiological study (WOLVES).MethodsWomen born in 1983/84, 1988/89, and 1993/94 participated in four cohorts between 2009/10 and 2014/15. Quadrivalent vaccination coverage and prevalence of HPV 6/11 infection and genital warts are reported for participants aged 19–22 years and 24–27 years at the time of sample collection. Statistical analyses were done to compare similarly aged participants using 2 × 2 contingency tables (Röhmel-Mansmann unconditional exact test; two-side alpha of 0.05).ResultsA total of 2456 women were recruited. Between 2010 and 2015, there was a statistically significant decrease in the prevalence of HPV 6 infection among women aged 24–27 years (2.1% versus 0.0%; P < 0.0001) and women aged 19–22 years (2.0% versus 0.0%; P = 0.0056). There was no significant decline in HPV 11 infection. In total, 52 of 2341 participants were diagnosed with genital warts. There was a statistically significant drop in the risk of developing genital warts in women aged 24–27 years between 2010 and 2015 (4.7% versus 1.7%, respectively; P = 0.0018). The overall risk of developing genital warts in women aged 19–27 years decreased from 3.1% in 2010 to 1.2% in 2015 (P = 0.0022).ConclusionsAn increase in vaccination coverage was associated with a decreased prevalence of genital warts in young women. A protective effect greater than herd immunity alone was seen despite low vaccination rates. Quadrivalent vaccine had a protective effect on genital HPV 6 infection and an almost fully protective effect on the development of genital warts in the youngest population.

Linguistic and clinical validation of the acute cystitis symptom score in German-speaking Swiss women with acute cystitis

Introduction and hypothesisThe Global Prevalence Study of Infections in Urinary tract in Community Setting (GPIU.COM) includes epidemiological aspects of acute cystitis (AC) in women in Germany and Switzerland. The primary study relates to the German version of the Acute Cystitis Symptom Score (ACSS), a self-reporting questionnaire for self-diagnosis and monitoring the symptomatic course of AC in women. The current study aimed to analyze the validity and reliability of the German ACSS in German-speaking female patients with AC in Switzerland.MethodsAnonymized patient data were collected and analyzed from women with AC at the first visit (diagnosis) and follow-up visits as baseline and controls, respectively. Data from 97 patients with a median age of 41 years underwent analysis. Psychometric and diagnostic characteristics of the ACSS were measured and statistically analyzed.ResultsAverage internal consistency of the ACSS resulted in a Cronbach’s alpha (95% CI) of 0.86 (0.83; 0.89) and did not differ significantly between the Swiss and German cohorts. Diagnostic values of the ACSS for the Swiss cohort were relatively lower than for the German cohort, possible due to discrepancies between definitions of UTI in national guidelines.ConclusionsThe analysis showed that the German version of the ACSS is also suitable for use in the German-speaking female population of Switzerland. Minor differences in definitions of AC between German and Swiss guidelines explain the observed discrepancies in diagnostic values of the ACSS between cohorts.

Challenges in using Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII) for preparation for natural birth: A feasibility study

ObjectiveWomen who plan a natural birth can benefit from strategies and/or resources that help them prepare for and cope with labour pain. This study aims to identify the feasibility of using Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII) for preparation of primiparous women for natural childbirth. Secondary aims are to test the acceptability of a health-focused information leaflet, and to describe how participants with high natural birth intentions cognitively prepare for birth. MethodsIn third trimester, ten primiparous women participated in this interventional study with follow-up. A health-focused information leaflet on physiological childbirth, MCII, a mental strategy that helps people achieve a desired goal by envisioning obstacles and how to overcome them, and a researcher-developed questionnaire which contained the CBSEI-C32, was used. Survey data were analysed using a combination of descriptive statistics and deductive theoretical thematic analysis. ResultsThe health-focused leaflet was exclusively judged positively. Nine women did not use MCII as instructed, they did not find it helpful for childbirth preparation and wished to have a more positive, health-focused approach towards childbirth. Two themes emerged from the participants’ responses: 'the ability to give birth' which was supported through childbirth preparedness, coping strategies, confidence and external supports and 'the uncertainty of giving birth' which included fears and worries about possible adverse events and the baby’s health. ConclusionMCII was not a promising tool for natural childbirth preparation among primiparous women in Germany. Our findings show that women prefer a positive, health-focused approach, rather than thinking about overcoming obstacles, when they prepare for childbirth.

Think scientists—Think male: Science and leadership are still more strongly associated with men than with women in Germany

AbstractSchein showed that attribute ratings for men and managers are more similar than attribute ratings for women and managers. Similar results were found for attributes ascribed to successful scientists and men versus women. In this study, we investigated whether the think manager—think male effect and the think scientist—think male effect are driven by the same attributes. This was not the case. Replicating previous studies, men and scientists were rated more similarly than women and scientists. We also found more overlap in stereotypes for men and managers versus women and managers. More concretely, we found that women differed significantly from managers as well as from scientists on 54 of the 92 items (59%). Men, however, only differed from managers on 17 items (18%) and scientists on 30 items (33%). To analyze on which attributes they differed significantly, we performed a factor analysis. We confirmed that women got low scores for leadership attributes but high scores in social values, which also explains the differences in the attribute ratings of managers and scientists. Also, a comparison of the effects based on these factors showed that the think manager—think male effect was mostly driven by differences in the stereotype of men and women compared to managers, which were seen as more typical male. However, the think scientist—think male effect was also driven by stereotypes about scientists as norm‐breaking, which did not match the stereotype about women.

Effect of non-optimum ambient temperature on cognitive function of elderly women in Germany

Non-optimum ambient temperature has been associated with a variety of health outcomes in the elderly population. However, few studies have examined its adverse effects on neurocognitive function. In this study, we explored the temperature-cognition association in elderly women. We investigated 777 elderly women from the German SALIA cohort during the 2007–2010 follow-up. Cognitive function was evaluated using the CERAD-Plus test battery. Modelled data on daily weather conditions were assigned to the residential addresses. The temperature-cognition association over lag 0–10 days was estimated using multivariable regression with distributed lag non-linear model. The daily mean temperature ranged between −6.7 and 26.0 °C during the study period for the 777 participants. We observed an inverse U-shaped association in elderly women, with the optimum temperature (15.3 °C) located at the 68th percentile of the temperature range. The average z-score of global cognitive function declined by −0.31 (95%CI: 0.73, 0.11) for extreme cold (the 2.5th percentile of temperature range) and −0.92 (95%CI: 1.50, −0.33) for extreme heat (the 97.5th percentile of temperature range), in comparison to the optimum temperature. Episodic memory was more sensitive to heat exposure, while semantic memory and executive function were the two cognitive domains sensitive to cold exposure. Individuals living in an urban area and those with a low educational level were particularly sensitive to extreme heat. In summary, non-optimum temperature was inversely associated with cognitive function in elderly women, with the effect size for heat exposure particularly substantial. The strength of association varied by cognitive domains and individual characteristics.

Monitoring of Influenza Vaccination Coverage among Pregnant Women in Germany Based on Nationwide Outpatient Claims Data: Findings for Seasons 2014/15 to 2019/20.

Pregnant women and their infants are at increased risk for severe influenza-related complications. A decade has passed since influenza vaccination was first recommended for pregnant women in Germany in 2010; however, monitoring of vaccination coverage (VC) has not yet been implemented for this target group. Using nationwide outpatient claims data, we here provide results on influenza VC among pregnant women in Germany for seasons 2014/15 to 2019/20. For any given season, pregnant women were defined as women who had undergone prenatal health care in at least two consecutive quarters within a season. VC increased from 9.0% in season 2014/15 to 16.6% in 2019/20 (+84%), while most of the increase occurred from season 2016/17 (VC: 9.9%) onwards (+68%). Consistently across seasons, women in east Germany were 40 to 60% more likely to be vaccinated compared to women residing in west Germany. According to age, the highest VC was observed among women aged 35 to <40 years (2019/20: 18.2%). Despite noticeable increases in influenza VC during recent years, overall coverage remains low among pregnant women. Starting with this analysis, VC among pregnant women in Germany will be monitored on a yearly basis in order to detect trends and identify immunization gaps.

Understanding Patterns of Economic Insecurity for Post-Soviet Migrant Women in Europe.

This study deals with meanings of economic insecurity for post-Soviet migrant women in Germany, Italy, and Spain, elaborating on its cultural underpinnings. Drawing upon several data sources, including interviews, observation, and online data, as well as judicial material, this study addresses the ways women from the former Soviet Union experience economic insecurity and which strategies they develop to cope. We consider women's age, social background, and level of education, analyzing their embeddedness into different life domains. We identify four patterns of coping with economic insecurity, linked to individual characteristics, cultural values and legal frame conditions in the countries under investigation, and provide implications for social mobility and conservative backlash in Europe.

Exploring how Syrian women manage their health after migration to Germany: results of a qualitative study

BackgroundIn the recent years, the number of Syrians living in Germany increased drastically due to the massive displacement caused by the Syrian conflict. Syrian migrant women in Germany are challenged by both the migration process and the changing of social roles. Seeking out healthcare may be hampered by linguistic and cultural barriers, but the new context may offer opportunities for health and well-being (free access to health care, civil/human rights). Little is known about how Syrian women manage their health after their resettlement in Germany.MethodsIn depth interviews in Arabic were conducted with 9 Syrian women who were recruited through purposive sampling (18–55 years, migrated in 2011–2017, different education levels), focusing on capabilities to control one’s health and to navigate the German healthcare system, and social/environmental barriers and facilitators to effectively manage their health. Interview transcripts were analysed using qualitative content analysis.ResultsThe women reported their health to be impaired by post-migration stressors, such as perceived discrimination, loss of social status and worrying about the future. Many interviewees felt disempowered and incompetent to successfully and actively navigate the German healthcare system, lacking information and not understanding their rights and options under the health insurance plan. The language barrier added to feeling vulnerable. Many women experienced doctors declining to treat them for capacity reasons; when treated, they often did not feel taken seriously or were dissatisfied with the emotional/cultural aspects of care. If possible, Arabic doctors were sought out. Some women, however, described improved resources for health, and appreciated better women’s rights as a source of power.ConclusionsThe lack of information about the structure and offers of the German healthcare system, language and culture specific barriers as well as socio-cultural challenges are undermining the ability of Syrian women to manage their health effectively after their resettlement in Germany. Providing tailored information on the German healthcare system, creating a health-literacy supportive environment, and improving cultural sensitivity in healthcare provision could help Syrian women better utilize medical care offered in Germany.

The impact of economic uncertainty, precarious employment, and risk attitudes on the transition to parenthood.

This study investigates how precarious employment throughout the life course affects the fertility behavior of men and women in Germany, and how risk attitudes moderate exposure to objectively given uncertainty. Analyzing data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) study from 1990 to 2015, I find that men and women have become quite similar in their fertility behavior: Stable employment accelerates family formation, whereas discontinuous and precarious employment delays it. With regard to risk attitudes, risk-averse women show the highest likelihood of family formation. They appear to choose a family- and parenthood-centered path in their life course that provides them with stability and social approval when unstable career prospects and uncertain employment are unable to provide these resources.

Divorce and Domestic Violence Among Syrian Refugees in Germany.

In recent literature, there are no academic studies on divorce and domestic violence among Syrian refugees in Germany. To contribute to filling this gap, the current study addresses the question: What are the main causes of divorce and domestic violence among Syrian refugees in Germany, and how are these two phenomena interrelated? The present study is based on 14 qualitative interviews with divorced Syrian refugee men and women in Germany, all of them are Muslim with different economic backgrounds from urban and rural areas in Syria and got divorced shortly after their arrival to Germany. The data were analyzed and coded following Mayring's guidelines for content analysis. The findings suggest that domestic violence results from conflicts of interest in marriage and divorce between Syrian refugee men and women. The present study uses the economic theory of marriage and divorce by Cary Becker to show how Syrian refugee women's "gains" of divorce in Germany exceed the "gains" of remaining married and how that leads them to divorce their husbands. In contrast, divorce is a heavy loss for Syrian refugee men. In addition, it shows how this conflict of interest results in domestic violence, by which the men resist their wives' eagerness to divorce and interpret the marital relationship according to Sharia law and Arabic traditions in order to keep their old patriarchal authority. However, this interpretation is inapplicable and criminalized by the German family legislation, and unwanted by their wives. The findings, through the example of Syrian refugees in Germany, imply that the causes of divorce and domestic violence among refugees in some regards are unique in comparison with natives and migrants. That means that we need more studies on this topic in different socio-cultural contexts.

Пенсионное обеспечение женщин в Федеративной Республике Германия

The issue of whether there are equal rights in Germany between women and men in terms of pensions. The differences in the amount of pensions to which women and men are entitled are analyzed. It is argued that one of the main reasons for these disparities is the persisting gender pay gap between men and women in Germany. It is postulated that the recently introduced “basic pension” for long-time employees will be a step toward solving the problem.