Women Of African Descent Research Articles

Earlier Detection Can Help Avoid Many Serious Complications of Peripartum Cardiomyopathy

Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) has a remarkable potential for recovery. It may be within our capability to help almost all women with PPCM not only to survive, but also to completely recover heart function. Time-of-diagnosis left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≥0.35 is associated with better survival rates and higher full recovery rates. Increased mortality, chronic cardiomyopathy, thromboembolic complications and serious ventricular tachyarrhythmias are associated with diagnostic LVEF <0.30. Delays in diagnosis may result in lower LVEF at diagnosis and subsequent lower recovery rates. Greater awareness of the possibility of heart failure developing in previously healthy young women, with no history of heart disease, will contribute to earlier diagnosis, with potentially better preserved heart function. Women of African descent may be at higher risk for poorer outcomes. Recent investigations suggest newer biomarkers may help with earlier detection of PPCM.

Hair and scalp disorders in women of African descent: an overview

We present an overview of hair and scalp disorders in women of African descent, discussing the biological features of afro-textured hair, as well as hair-grooming practices in this cohort and their association with specific hair and scalp disorders. A practical approach to diagnosing and managing common hair and scalp disorders in this cohort is also presented.

Mythology to reality: Case report on a giant cutaneous horn of the scalp in an African American female

We present a case study of a patient with a rare and disfiguring dermatologic condition known as cornu cutaneum, or giant cutaneous horn (GCH). While this condition has been well described in people of European and Asian ancestry, its presence in African populations is perceived to be rare and has not been reported in the literature until recently. We present the case of cornu cutaneum in a woman of African descent, contributing to the recent evidence that this condition may not be as rare in African populations as believed. Etiologic factors, epidemiology and management are also reviewed.

Victimization experiences, substance misuse, and mental health problems in relation to risk for lethality among African American and African Caribbean women.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association of intimate partner victimization experiences, mental health (MH), and substance misuse problems with the risk for lethality among women of African descent. Data for this cross-sectional study were derived from a large case-control study examining the relationship between abuse status and health consequences. Women were recruited from primary care, prenatal, or family planning clinics in Baltimore and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Logistic regression was used to generate the study findings. Among 543 abused women, physical and psychological abuse by intimate partners, comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptoms, and PTSD-only problems significantly increased the likelihood of lethality risk. However, victims' substance misuse and depression-only problems were not associated with the risk for lethality. In addition, PTSD symptoms mediated the relationship between severe victimization experiences and risk for lethality. Practitioners should pay attention to victimization experiences and MH issues when developing treatment and safety plans. Policies to fund integrated services for African American and African Caribbean women with victimization and related MH issues, and training of providers to identify at-risk women may help reduce the risk for lethality in intimate partner relationships.

Abstract 145: Finding correlations between CtBP expression and breast cancer risk factors.

Abstract In women, breast cancer is ranked second in cancer deaths; almost 40,000 deaths are expected and over 225,000 new cases are expected. Research has shown that breast cancer prevalence and mortality are influenced by various factors including race and lifestyle. Studies have indicated racial disparity whereby young women of African descent have higher breast cancer mortality rate and this could be partly explained by higher occurrence of more aggressive breast cancer forms that exhibit characteristics of epigenetically re-programmed reactivation of embryonic processes that promote tumor invasion, spread and resistance to chemotherapy. These are features common to certain breast cancer subtypes including basal-like and triple negative breast cancers, which occur more frequently in younger African American women. We are focusing on epigenetic factors that explain this disparity as this understanding will help provide population-based approach to detecting and treating breast cancer. C-terminal Binding Protein (CtBP) is a family of epigenetic regulators that undergoes dimerization which is stimulated and stabilized by NADH, a product of metabolism. CtBP has been shown to induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), an embryonic program that increases tumor invasion and metastasis; we therefore hypothesize that CtBP likely plays a role in tumor progression. Research from our lab has shown an elevated level of CtBP present in the nuclei of more clinically aggressive breast cancer subtypes.. To find the correlation between CtBP expression and other patient factors such as race, age, BMI and hormone receptor status we have begun to screen several breast cancer patient cohorts obtained from larger minority serving medical centers around the country. Our preliminary findings reveal that elevated levels of CtBP expression in patient tumor samples shows a statistically significant correlation with shortened median survival. Moreover, random sampling of a small population of these cohorts suggests that the correlation between CtBP and poor clinical outcome is greater in women of African heritage compared to European descent. How epithelial features and stromal attributes of the tissue microenvironment contribute to this correlation is currently under investigation. Citation Format: Mofiyinfoluwa A. Obadina. Finding correlations between CtBP expression and breast cancer risk factors. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2013 Apr 6-10; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2013;73(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 145. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2013-145

25‐hydroxyvitamin D levels in African American and Nigerian women

African Americans (AA) have substantially lower levels of circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) than whites. We compared population-based samples of 25(OH)D in women of African descent from Nigeria and metropolitan Chicago. One hundred women of Yoruba ethnicity from southwest Nigeria and 94 African American women from metropolitan Chicago were recruited and compared using a standardized survey protocol and the same laboratory assay for 25(OH)D. Mean 25(OH)D levels were 64 nmol/l among the Nigerians and 29 nmol/l among the AA. Only 10% of the values were shared in common between the groups, and 76% of the Nigerians were above the currently defined threshold for adequate circulating 25(OH)D compared to 5% of the AA. Modest associations were seen between 25(OH)D and measures of obesity, although adjustment for these traits did not materially affect the group differences. These data support the presumption that skin color is an adaptive trait which has evolved in part to regulate 25(OH)D. It remains undetermined, however, whether lower values observed in AA have negative health consequences.

Intimate Partner Violence, Depression, PTSD, and Use of Mental Health Resources Among Ethnically Diverse Black Women

This study examined exposure to violence and risk for lethality in intimate partner relationships as factors related to co-occurring MH problems and use of mental health (MH) resources among women of African descent. Black women with intimate partner violence (IPV) experiences (n = 431) were recruited from primary care, prenatal or family planning clinics in the United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Severity of IPV was significantly associated with co-occurring MH problems, but was not associated with the use of MH resources among African-American women. Risk for lethality and co-occurring problems were also not significantly related to the use of resources. African Caribbean women with severe physical abuse experiences were significantly less likely to use resources. In contrast, severity of physical abuse was positively associated with the use of resources among Black women with mixed ethnicity. Severe IPV experiences are risk factors for co-occurring MH problems, which in turn, increases the need for MH services. However, Black women may not seek help for MH problems. Thus, social work practitioners in health care settings must thoroughly assess women for their IPV experiences and develop tailored treatment plans that address their abuse histories and MH needs.

Constructing Syphilis and Black Motherhood: Maternal Health Care for Women of African Descent in New York’s Columbus Hill, 1915-30

Abstract Negative stereotypes of black people, and of mothers in particular, have historically had material meaning. They directly supported racialized health policies, practices, and thinking among the health care communities and inhibited black women’s capacity to protect the health and welfare of themselves and their children. This was evidenced in an early twentieth-century health experiment in New York’s Columbus Hill, 1917-30. This research examines how health care reformers and practitioners constructed narratives of black disease vis-à-vis motherhood or, alternately, sought to treat the presumed susceptibility of black women and communities to syphilis. The findings suggest that black mothers disproved negative stereotypes of inferior mothering by seeking out health care for themselves and their children-even to the point of consenting to the extreme discomfort and dangers of syphilis testing to receive prenatal care. Ironically, as their participation reflected an adherence to good mothering, their agency supported a growth in a medical industry that benefitted from the persistent negative stereotypes.

Factors Influencing Resource Use by African American and African Caribbean Women Disclosing Intimate Partner Violence

Many victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) do not access services. Education and severity of physical violence have previously been shown to predict resource utilization, but whether these hold true specifically among women of African descent is unknown. This article furthers our understanding of the relationship between IPV and resource use, considering sociodemographics and aspects of IPV by presenting results from a study conducted with African American and African Caribbean women in Baltimore, Maryland, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Of the 545 women included in this analysis, 95 (18%) reported emotional abuse only, 274 (50%) reported experiencing physical abuse only, and 176 (32%) had experienced both physical and sexual abuse by an intimate partner. Resource utilization was relatively low among these women, with only 57% seeking any help. Among those who did, 13% sought medical, 18% DV, 37% community, and 41% criminal justice resources. Generalized linear model results indicated that older age and severe risk for lethality from IPV and PTSD were predictive of certain types of resource use, while education, insurance status, and depression had no influence. Perceived availability of police and shelter resources varied by site. Results suggest that systems that facilitate resource redress for all abused women are essential, particularly attending to younger clients who are less likely to seek help, while building awareness that women accessing resources may be at severe risk for lethality from the violence and may also be experiencing mental health complications. In addition, greater efforts should be made on the community level to raise awareness among women of available resources.

Comparison of the RIFLE, AKIN and KDIGO criteria to predict mortality in critically ill patients

ObjectiveAcute kidney injury is a common complication in critically ill patients, and the RIFLE, AKIN and KDIGO criteria are used to classify these patients. The present study's aim was to compare these criteria as predictors of mortality in critically ill patients.MethodsProspective cohort study using medical records as the source of data. All patients admitted to the intensive care unit were included. The exclusion criteria were hospitalization for less than 24 hours and death. Patients were followed until discharge or death. Student's t test, chi-squared analysis, a multivariate logistic regression and ROC curves were used for the data analysis.ResultsThe mean patient age was 64 years old, and the majority of patients were women of African descent. According to RIFLE, the mortality rates were 17.74%, 22.58%, 24.19% and 35.48% for patients without acute kidney injury (AKI) in stages of Risk, Injury and Failure, respectively. For AKIN, the mortality rates were 17.74%, 29.03%, 12.90% and 40.32% for patients without AKI and at stage I, stage II and stage III, respectively. For KDIGO 2012, the mortality rates were 17.74%, 29.03%, 11.29% and 41.94% for patients without AKI and at stage I, stage II and stage III, respectively. All three classification systems showed similar ROC curves for mortality.ConclusionThe RIFLE, AKIN and KDIGO criteria were good tools for predicting mortality in critically ill patients with no significant difference between them.

IRAK4 and TLR3 Sequence Variants may Alter Breast Cancer Risk among African-American Women

Mounting evidence suggests that imbalances in immune regulation contribute to cell transformation. Women of African descent are an understudied group at high risk for developing aggressive breast cancer (BrCa). Therefore, we examined the role of 16 innate immune single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in relation to BrCa susceptibility among 174 African-American women in Atlanta, GA, USA. SNPs were examined in germ-line DNA collected from 102 BrCa patients and 72 women with benign nodules using SNPstream methodology. Inheritance of the TLR3 rs10025405 GG genotype was associated with an 82% decrease in BrCa risk. In contrast, individuals who possessed at least one IRAK4 rs4251545 T allele had a 1.68- to 4.99-fold increase in the risk of developing BrCa relative to those with the referent genotype (OR = 4.99; 95% CI = 1.00, 25.00; p = 0.0605). However, the IRAK4 rs4251545 locus was only significant under the additive genetic model (p trend = 0.0406). In silico predictions suggest IRAK4 rs4251545 SNP falls within a transcription enhancer/silencer region of the gene and codes for an Ala428Thr amino acid change. This missense mutation introduces a potential phosphorylation site in the extreme carboxy terminus (XCT) of the IRAK4 kinase domain. Preliminary molecular modeling predicts that this SNP stabilizes two alpha helices within the XCT on the surface of the IRAK4 kinase domain and increases the size of the groove between them. Our in silico results, combined with previous reports noting the presence of IRAK4 and XCT fragments in mouse and human serum, suggest the possibility that the XCT subdomain of IRAK4 possesses biological function. These findings require further evaluation and validation in larger populations, additional molecular modeling as well as functional studies to explore the role of IRAK4 and its XCT in cell transformation and innate immunity.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy: a review

Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a form of dilated cardiomyopathy of unclear etiology affecting women without preexisting heart disease during the last month of pregnancy or during the first 5 months postpartum. Its incidence shows marked geographic and ethnic variation, being most common in Africa and among women of African descent. Most women present in the first month postpartum with typical heart failure symptoms such as dyspnea, lower extremity edema, and fatigue. These symptoms are often initially erroneously diagnosed as part of the normal puerperal process. Diagnosis can be aided by the finding of a significantly elevated serum brain natriuretic peptide. The etiology of PPCM is unclear; however, recent research suggests abnormal prolactin metabolism is seminal in its development, and prolactin antagonism with bromocriptine shows promise as a novel treatment for PPCM.

Forced Sex and HIV Risk in Violent Relationships

The intersecting epidemics of gender-based violence, specifically forced sex, and HIVcontinue to affect women worldwide. Both in the United States and worldwide, women of African descent are disproportionately affected. The current literature was reviewed for inclusion based on its relevance to the intersection of forced sex and HIV risk behaviors. This brief review synthesizes research on the linkages between forced sexand behavioral risk factors for HIV infection. We explore forced sex from the perspective of the perpetrator being a current or former intimate partner, as well as the first sexual intercourse experience occurring through the use of physical force (i.e., forced sexual initiation). The review also emphasizes the importance of expanding current research to understand the physiological mechanisms linking forced sex to HIV risk. The factors linking intimate partner forced sex and forced sexual initiation with HIV/AIDS are varied and complex. The review concludes with recommendations for future research in this area and implications this research could have on preventing violence and mitigating the health consequences.

Abstract A20: Using intervention mapping to plan a breast health promotion program for African immigrant women: A proposal.

Abstract Breast cancer among African women is described as aggressive and progressive in nature. In fact, many African women who have breast cancer are pre-menopausal. Like their African-American counterparts, African women also suffer from early onset of breast cancer with most cases occurring when they are younger than 50 years old. Although annual mammography screening is recognized as effective in reducing breast cancer-related morbidity and mortality, women of African descent are less likely to have mammography screenings, though they are at higher risk for getting the disease relative to other racial and ethnic groups. They are also more likely to present for treatment with late stage tumors. Coupled with the above-described similarities between African American women and African immigrant women are unique cultural characteristics that shape these women's migration experiences in relation to breast health. Unfortunately, it is difficult to delineate epidemiological data between these two groups given that both groups are subsumed under the same broad category of “African-American”. As African immigrant women continue to maintain its current position as one of the fastest growing populations in this country, it will become more paramount to advance the science around behavioral and environmental factors driving these women's decisions about their health, specifically how to tailor effective breast cancer prevention strategies for this population. The purpose of this research endeavor was to design a comprehensive breast health promotion program for African immigrant women in Houston, Texas using Intervention Mapping. Step 1, needs assessment, revealed low knowledge and exposure to Breast Health Information; shame, secrecy, stigma regarding breast health discourse; diverse explanations and treatments for breast cancer; access-related barriers; unique cultural factors and spiritual beliefs about breast cancer; and concerns regarding privacy and trust in healthcare settings. The Health Belief Model, Social Cognitive Theory and Social Support were found as the most salient theoretical underpinnings for this endeavor. Steps 2 through 6 of the Intervention Mapping approach yielded a comprehensive, community-based, culturally-appropriate breast health promotion for African immigrant women with a rigorous evaluation plan titled, “Get Screened, Be Whole, Stay Well”. In summary, Intervention Mapping was useful in systematically planning a theory-based, comprehensive program for African immigrant women in Houston, Texas. Program planners can employ the Intervention Mapping approach to prioritize the health needs of underserved populations; target theoretical determinants for behavioral change; and identify effective methods, strategies and delivery channels for engendering sustainable behavioral change in cancer prevention. This iterative process also allows for collaboration with diverse stakeholders; it promotes transparency in the planning process for all parties involved; and tends to yield a more culturally appropriate program for the target population. Citation Format: Ebun O. Odeneye. Using intervention mapping to plan a breast health promotion program for African immigrant women: A proposal. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2012 Oct 27-30; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21(10 Suppl):Abstract nr A20.

Abstract A79: Perspectives of breast and cervical cancer screening among female African immigrants to the U.S.

Abstract Black women in the US have both a higher percentage of late-stage diagnoses as well as the highest rates of mortality from breast cancer when compared to White, Hispanic-Latino, American-Indian and Asian women in the US. Moreover, in comparison to these same ethnic subgroups, Black women also have the second highest prevalence of cervical cancer. Many reports evaluating the cancer outcomes of Black women combine African born immigrants and US born Blacks. Previous literature however, suggests that this categorization ignores subtle yet important cultural differences between the two groups, which in turn have widespread effects on breast and cervical cancer screening practices. Therefore, this study investigated knowledge and awareness levels of breast and cervical cancer screening practices, specifically among female African born immigrants to the US. Utilizing qualitative methods, this project was completed in conjunction with the African Women's Cancer Awareness Association (AWCAA), an established organization with strong ties to the substantial African immigrant population in the Washington, DC metropolitan area. Data were collected from 41 participants through key informant interviews, focus group sessions and a questionnaire, over a three-month study period. Key informant interviews and focus group sessions ranged in duration from 45-90 minutes and followed a semi-structured interview approach. AWCAA assisted in the recruitment of women for focus groups that were structured by age, with women 20-39 and 40-70 years old. Results suggest that fatalism, stigma and privacy, are among the major factors that affect the decision to seek preventative screening for breast and cervical cancer. Additionally, the study implies that cervical cancer awareness is significantly lower among this population when compared to breast cancer awareness. Participants also attributed their lack of screening to its low priority in comparison to other obligations such as job and family commitments. Furthermore, spirituality and the belief that cancer is not a part of God's plan for their life, was seen through repetition of the comment, “It is not my portion.” Although this is a small, focused study, it is adds to the minimal current literature regarding African immigrant women's perspectives of breast and cervical cancer screening. Additionally, this study demonstrates differences between women of African descent residing in the US and the need for continued research in this field. Information to this regard is critical for researchers, physicians and public health educators, aiming to design culturally appropriate interventions to reduce the prevalence of breast and cervical cancer among female African immigrants. Citation Format: Ezinne G. Ndukwe, Karen Patricia Williams, Vanessa Sheppard, Amr Soliman. Perspectives of breast and cervical cancer screening among female African immigrants to the U.S. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2012 Oct 27-30; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21(10 Suppl):Abstract nr A79.

Intimate partner violence and HIV risk factors among African-American and African-Caribbean women in clinic-based settings

Despite progress against intimate partner violence (IPV) and HIV/AIDS in the past two decades, both epidemics remain major public health problems, particularly among women of color. The objective of this study was to assess the relationship between recent IPV and HIV risk factors (sexual and drug risk behaviors, sexually transmitted infections [STIs], condom use, and negotiation) among women of African descent. We conducted a comparative case–control study in women's health clinics in Baltimore, MD, USA and St. Thomas and St. Croix, US Virgin Islands (USVI). Women aged 18–55 years who experienced physical and/or sexual IPV in the past two years (Baltimore, n=107; USVI, n=235) were compared to women who never experienced any form of abuse (Baltimore, n=207; USVI, n=119). Logistic regression identified correlates of recent IPV by site. In both sites, having a partner with concurrent sex partners was independently associated with a history of recent IPV (Baltimore, AOR: 3.91, 95% CI: 1.79–8.55 and USVI, AOR: 2.25, 95% CI: 1.11–4.56). In Baltimore, factors independently associated with recent IPV were lifetime casual sex partners (AOR: 1.99, 95% CI: 1.11–3.57), exchange sex partners (AOR: 5.26, 95% CI: 1.92–14.42), infrequent condom use during vaginal sex (AOR: 0.24, 95% CI: 0.08–0.72), and infrequent condom use during anal sex (AOR: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.09–0.93). In contrast, in the USVI, having a concurrent sex partner (AOR: 3.33, 95% CI: 1.46–7.60), frequent condom use during vaginal sex (AOR: 1.97, 95% CI: 1.06–3.65), frequent condom use during anal sex (AOR: 6.29, 95% CI: 1.57–25.23), drug use (AOR: 3.16, 95% CI: 1.00–10.06), and a past-year STI (AOR: 2.68, 95% CI: 1.25–5.72) were associated with recent IPV history. The divergent results by site warrant further investigation into the potential influence of culture, norms, and intentions on the relationships examined. Nonetheless, study findings support a critical need to continue the development and implementation of culturally tailored screening for IPV within HIV prevention and treatment programs.

Triple-negative breast cancer: epidemiological considerations and recommendations

Breast cancer is a major problem for global public health. Breast Cancer is the most common incident form of cancer in women around the world. The incidence is increasing while mortality is declining in many high-income countries. The last decade has seen a revolution in the understanding of breast cancer, with new classifications proposed that have significant prognostic value and provide guides to treatment options. Breast cancers that demonstrate the absence of oestrogen receptor and progesterone receptor and no overexpression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) are referred to as triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). There is now evidence emerging from epidemiological studies regarding important characteristics of this group of tumours that carry a relatively poorer prognosis than the major breast cancer sub-types. From this review of available data and information, there are some consistent findings that emerge. Women with TNBC experience the peak risk of recurrence within 3 years of diagnosis, and the mortality rates appear to be increased for 5 years after diagnosis. TNBC represents 10%-20% of invasive breast cancers and has been associated with African-American race, deprivation status, younger age at diagnosis, more advanced disease stage, higher grade, high mitotic indices, family history of breast cancer and BRCA1 mutations. TNBC is regularly reported to be three times more common in women of African descent and in pre-menopausal women, and carries a poorer prognosis than other forms of breast cancer. Although prospects for prevention of non-hormone-dependent breast cancer are currently poor, it is still important to understand the aetiology of such tumours. There remains a great deal of work to be done to arrive at a comprehensive picture of the aetiology of breast cancer. Key recommendations are that there is a clear and urgent need to have more epidemiological studies of the breast cancer sub-types to integrate aetiological and lifestyle factors for prevention of incidence and death, and to have more population-based information of the clinical and biological relevance from cancer registries.

Disordered Eating among African American and African Caribbean Women: The Influence of Intimate Partner Violence, Depression, and PTSD

We assessed the influence of intimate partner violence (IPV), depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on disordered eating patterns (DE) among women of African descent through a comparative case-control study (N = 790) in Baltimore, MD, and St. Thomas and St. Croix, US Virgin Islands, from 2009–2011. IPV, depression and PTSD were independent risk factors in the full sample. The relationship between IPV and DE was partially mediated by depression. The influence of risk for lethality from violence was fully mediated by depression. IPV should be considered in research and treatment of DE and both IPV and DE should be assessed when the other or depression is detected.

Factors associated with psychological distress among women of African descent at high risk for BRCA mutations.

Little is known about psychological distress among women of African descent who are at high risk for a BRCA mutation. This is a group for whom breast cancer risk reduction is critical due to the group's high rates of breast cancer mortality. Distress is important to consider as it may reduce the potential benefit of genetic counseling and negatively affect decision making related to risk reduction. The goals of the current study were to examine breast cancer-specific distress and depressive symptoms in women of African descent at who are at high risk for a BRCA mutation and to identify background factors associated with these outcomes. Participants were 148 high-risk African American and Caribbean women who were part of a larger study that offered participants BRCA counseling at no cost. Participants completed the Impact of Events Scale, which assessed breast cancer-specific distress, and the Center of Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale, which assessed depressive symptoms. Results of analyses revealed that almost half of the sample achieved scores indicating high and clinically significant breast cancer-specific distress, while almost one-third had clinically significant depression scores. Results further showed that low income was significantly associated with cancer-specific distress, while having a cancer diagnosis was significantly associated with depressive symptoms. These results underscore the need for targeted psychological support throughout the genetic risk assessment process for this particular high-risk group.

The Vénus Noire

This essay surveys art, critical writings, and poetry on and around the subject of Sarah, or Saartjie, Baartman, a South African Khoi or San woman exhibited as the “Hottentot Venus” from 1810 to 1815 in Europe. The essay shares the authors’ research methods and ideas about how to contextualize Baartman within a discussion of images of women of African descent, particularly in Western culture.