Wolf Recovery Research Articles

Switch or perish? Prey–predator interactions in a Mediterranean area

AbstractPredator–prey relationships can influence community processes, and a rich prey spectrum is important to favour carnivore conservation, as well as to buffer single prey towards intensive predation. Antipredator behavioural responses can occur and can be dynamic in time and space, which may generate counter‐responses in predators. However, data are scarce on their role in modulating carnivore diet and behaviour. Data are especially needed for European landscapes that are largely anthropized and have been recently recolonized by large carnivores. In a protected area in central Italy recently recolonized by the wolf and hosting a rich community of wild ungulates, we studied the interactions between this predator and three ungulate species. At the initial stage of wolf recovery, the fallow deer and the wild boar were the main prey, while the roe deer was a minor food item. Through camera‐trapping and predator food habits, we assessed temporal changes in wolf–prey relationships throughout 5 years (2017–2022). Wolf detection rates were spatially associated with those of fallow deer and wild boar, but shrub cover was positively related to predator and negatively to prey, suggesting possible prey avoidance of sites with lower visibility and greater predation risk. Throughout the years, the fallow deer increased its diurnal activity, with a decreasing temporal overlap with the predator. The wolf showed crepuscular/nocturnal activity, with an increased synchronization with the wild boar, which replaced the fallow deer as first prey. No support for major spatiotemporal responses was reported for wild boar and roe deer. With the ongoing recovery of carnivores across Europe, conservation priorities may emphasize the need to maintain an efficient ecological role of predators. Our results support the role of antipredator responses in modulating predator behaviour and diet and emphasize the importance of a diverse spectrum of wild prey to ensure the conservation of the ecological role of carnivores.

Do recolonising wolves trigger non‐consumptive effects in European ecosystems? A review of evidence

Predators can affect ecosystems through non‐consumptive effects (NCE) on their prey, which can lead to cascading effects on the vegetation. In mammalian communities, such cascading effects on whole ecosystems have mainly been demonstrated in protected areas, but the extent to which such effects may occur in more human‐dominated landscapes remains disputable. With the recolonisation of wolves Canis lupus in Europe, understanding the potential for such cascading processes becomes crucial for understanding the ecological consequences of wolf recovery and making appropriate management recommendations. Here, we investigate the evidence for non‐consumptive effects of wolves on their wild ungulate prey and cascading effects on the vegetation in European landscapes. We reviewed empirical studies reporting wild ungulate responses to wolves involving spatio‐temporal behaviour at large and fine spatial scales, activity patterns, vigilance, grouping, physiological effects, and effects on the vegetation. We reveal that non‐consumptive effects of wolves in Europe have been studied in few regions and with focus on regions with low human impact, are highly context‐dependent, and might often be overruled by human‐related factors. Hence, we highlight the need for a description of human influence in NCE studies. We discuss challenges in NCE research and the potential for advances in future research on NCE of wolves in a human‐dominated landscape. We emphasise the need for wildlife management to restore ecosystem complexity and processes, to allow non‐consumptive predator effects to occur.

Humans drive spatial variation in mortality risk for a threatened wolf population in a Canis hybrid zone

Abstract Large carnivores often exhibit high survival rates in protected areas, whereas intentional and unintentional human‐caused mortality may be greater in adjacent areas. These patterns can result in source‐sink dynamics and limit population expansion beyond protected areas. We used telemetry data from 438 canids in 141 packs collected from 2002 to 2020 to evaluate mortality risk for wolves, coyotes, and admixed canids in a 3‐species hybrid zone in and adjacent to a large protected area in Ontario, Canada. The hybrid zone is occupied by most of the remaining eastern wolves (Canis lycaon), a rare, threatened species that hybridizes with sympatric eastern coyotes (C. latrans) and Great Lakes grey wolves (C. lupus). Within Algonquin Provincial Park (APP), annual human‐caused mortality from harvest and vehicles was low (0.06, 95% CI [0.03, 0.08]), whereas annual human‐caused mortality was higher in adjacent areas (0.31, 95% CI [0.25, 0.37]). Smaller protected areas implemented to help protect eastern wolves did not significantly reduce mortality. Eastern wolves survived poorly relative to other canids and dispersing canids survived poorly relative to residents. Mortality risk was greater when canids were closer to roads. Mortality risk was also increased or reduced by the strength of individual‐level selection or avoidance of roads relative to their availability, respectively. Our results provide a comprehensive evaluation of factors influencing spatial variation in mortality risk for canids to inform eastern wolf recovery efforts. Additionally, we developed a novel modelling approach for investigating the influence of resource selection on mortality risk, which highlighted that individual‐level responses to risk can strongly influence population‐level mortality patterns. Synthesis and applications. Despite being listed as ‘threatened’ under the Ontario Endangered Species Act, eastern wolves are still legally trapped and shot outside protected areas in central Ontario. Eastern wolves and dispersing canids survive poorly outside of APP, primarily from human‐caused mortality. These results, along with the apparent inadequacy of the smaller protected areas, suggest that expanding the threatened eastern wolf population outside APP is unlikely under current management conditions. Protecting eastern wolves from human‐caused mortality is complicated as it would require a harvest ban for all canids, including coyotes.

Kill rates on native ungulates by Mexican gray wolves in Arizona and New Mexico

AbstractMexican gray wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) reintroduction began in 1998 in Arizona, USA, with 11 individuals initially; wolves from this population dispersed into New Mexico, USA, the following year. Numbers of wolves have steadily increased (≥241 individuals in Dec 2022) and the size of the recovery area has expanded in both states. Understanding kill rates is fundamental to the recovery and management of Mexican wolves to properly maintain a healthy and sustainable population of wolves and their prey species. We used global positioning system (GPS) cluster analysis to locate kill sites and estimate kill rates on native ungulate prey taken in the recovery area by 10 Mexican wolf groups during winter (15 Feb–15 Mar) and 8 wolf groups during summer (15 Jun–15 Jul) in 2015–2017. Elk (Cervus canadensis) composed 94% of the native ungulates documented at Mexican wolf kill sites (n = 139); the remaining 6% were mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus; n = 9). Two‐thirds of all wolf‐killed native ungulates were elk calves. We estimated kill rates as ungulate biomass killed/wolf/day. From combined results for all years, we estimated that each Mexican wolf killed on average 9.0 ± 5.4 kg (±95% CI) of ungulate biomass per day during winter and 7.8 ± 6.2 kg during the summer. Our estimates of kill rates could be overestimated if Mexican wolves obtained a substantial amount of their biomass from scavenging, particularly during 4 months of hunting seasons (Sep–Dec) not captured in winter and summer. Using data from the first 2 years of the study (2015, 2016), we developed a logistic regression model to predict probability of an elk kill occurring at a GPS cluster as a function of hours spent by a collared wolf at that GPS cluster and size of the wolf group. Applying this model to the final year of the study (2017) resulted in similar numbers of predicted (n = 16.1 and 27.2 in winter and summer, respectively) and observed numbers (n = 15 and 26) of elk kills. Additionally, the demographic composition of the 2017 elk kills closely matched that of the previous 2 years. The results of this study indicate similar predation patterns of Mexican wolves to those of wolves in northern locations and can help wildlife managers plan for potential effects from a larger population of wolves across a broad area in Arizona and New Mexico.

The challenges of success: Future wolf conservation and management in the United States

Abstract Gray wolf (Canis lupus) recovery and conservation has been a remarkable success over the last 30 years in the United States. Remarkable success yields remarkable challenges, however. As populations expand, wolves will colonize more human-dominated landscapes and face numerous challenges, such as fragmented habitats, barriers to dispersal, and increased encounters with humans, pets, and livestock. In such areas, conflicts between humans and wolves will increase. We summarize several major scientific and social challenges that wolf conservation, recovery, and management will face in the coming years. In addition, we suggest actions to help address each challenge. Future wolf conservation in the United States will be affected by the ability of managers to predict colonization and dispersal dynamics, to reduce hybridization and disease transmission, to mitigate and deter wolf–livestock conflicts, to harvest wolves sustainably while satisfying diverse stakeholders, to avert a reduction in tolerance for wolves due to a disinterest in nature, and to engage diverse stakeholders in wolf conservation to avoid management by ballot initiative or legislative and judicial decrees.

Factors affecting the recovery of Mexican wolves in the Southwest United States

Abstract Recovering and maintaining large carnivore populations is a global conservation challenge that requires better knowledge of the factors affecting their populations, particularly in shared landscapes (i.e. non‐protected areas where people occupy and or utilize the land). The Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) is an endangered wolf subspecies being recovered on shared landscapes in the Southwest United States and Mexico. We used data from the U.S. program to model population growth, evaluate the impact of management removal and illegal killing relative to other demographic factors, and test hypotheses about factors influencing rates of management removal and illegal killing. From 1998 to 2019, the population growth averaged 12% per year. Rates of natural reproduction, illegal killing and other mortality remained consistent over the 22 years; while releases, translocations and management removals varied markedly between two time periods, phase 1:1998–2007 and phase 2:2008–2019. The number of wolves removed for conflict management was higher during phase 1 (average ~ 13 per year, rate = 24.8%) than phase 2 (average of ~5 per year, rate = 5.2%). This decrease in management removal resulted in the wolf population resuming growth after a period of population stagnation. Two factors influenced this decrease, a change in policy regarding removal of wolves (stronger modelling support) and a decrease in the number of captive‐reared adult wolves released into the wild (weaker modelling support). Illegal mortality was relatively constant across both phases, but after the decrease in management removal, illegal mortality became the most important factor (relative importance shifted from 28.2% to 50.1%). Illegal mortality was positively correlated with rates of reintroduction and translocation of wolves and negatively correlated with the rate of management removal. Synthesis and applications. Using management removal to reduce human–carnivore conflict can have negative population impacts if not used judiciously. Recovering and maintaining carnivore populations in shared landscapes may require greater tolerance of conflict and more emphasis on effective conflict prevention strategies and compensation programs for affected stakeholders.

An Initial Habitat Suitability Analysis for the Red Wolf Across its Historical Range

Abstract The red wolf Canis rufus is endemic to the southeastern United States and has been reduced to a single population occupying the Albemarle Peninsula in coastal North Carolina. To ensure species persistence and to meet conservation goals as outlined in the Red Wolf Recovery Plan (USFWS 1990, 2007, 2018a), it is important to conduct habitat suitability analyses to identify potential sites for future reintroductions. Problematically, such habitat suitability analyses are hindered by limited insight into how the red wolf once used habitat in landscapes that differ extensively from the currently occupied locality. Therefore, here we outline and parameterize a habitat suitability analysis framework for identifying and ranking potential reintroduction sites across the historical range of the species. We used a geographic information system approach to develop a habitat suitability model based on indices of landscape type (i.e., cropland, forest) and metrics based on distance from a point to nearest road-types and to human populations. We created a land-use index based on information on habitat suitability, preference, and use extracted from the literature. We then incorporated human population measures and distances to major roads to create a single model of ranked suitability throughout the study area. We further used this model to identify suitability of large (> 1,000 km2) parcels of federally managed lands. Results indicate large areas of potentially suitable lands occurring in multiple National Forests situated across the historical range of the species. This approach to habitat suitability analysis development is customizable and can be applied to other species whose historical ranges cover a variety of habitat types, but data are lacking on specifics about how the species used these habitats across their range.

Where wolves were: setting historical baselines for wolf recovery in Spain

AbstractReference conditions are necessary to assess the conservation status of species, understand their declines, and manage their recovery. Historical documents offer large amounts of records of a wide variety of species, which may be used to generate reference baselines on the historical distribution range of species. We collected information on the Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus presence or assumed absence for 6734 localities in Spain from the geographical dictionary edited by Pascual Madoz in the mid‐19th century. We used probabilistic distribution models to estimate the wolf historical range with unprecedented detail, allowing the quantification of the historical reduction in occupancy area. Wolf records were widely distributed in mid‐19th century Spain, being present in all its mainland provinces. The probability of occurrence was positively associated with landscape roughness and negatively with human population density and the landscape suitability for agriculture. The area estimated to be occupied by wolves ranged between 212 200 and 317 600 km2, depending on the approach used to set cut‐off values from the predictions. Our estimations represented an average range reduction of 68% between the mid‐19th century and present time, resulting in the current restriction of the species to the country's north‐western quadrant. The putative recent recovery of the wolf in Spain consists mainly of the accumulation of wolf records in areas where the species had persisted and the recolonization of some peripheral areas, but there is no indication of widespread recovery of the historical distribution range. We show that the compilation of historical species records allows producing baseline range scenarios with much higher resolution than usually available to inform species status and set recovery targets, an approach that can be implemented in other areas and taxa.

Evidence of reduced abundance, density, and survival of coyotes under federal management for red wolf recovery

AbstractTo mitigate coyote (Canis latrans) introgression in the wild red wolf (Canis rufus) genome, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Red Wolf Recovery Program used a combination of reproductive sterilization and lethal removal of coyotes to minimize hybridization and increase the endangered red wolf population. Although sterilization assisted in limiting coyote introgression to ≤4% in the wild red wolf genome, its potential negative effect on coyote and hybrid abundance and density is unknown. Using long‐term capture–mark–recapture and radio‐telemetry data collected on red wolves, coyotes, and hybrids under the USFWS Red Wolf Adaptive Management Plan implemented during 2000–2013, we explored three areas of research: (1) spatial modeling to correlate land cover characteristics with the relative probabilities of capture for red wolves, coyotes, and hybrids; (2) survival analysis of radio‐marked canids; and (3) annual population estimates for the three Canis taxa. We detected no differences in the relative probability of capture among Canis taxa. Red wolves, coyotes, and hybrids were most frequently captured in areas proximate to road networks with low canopy cover (i.e., cropland) and away from coastal bottomland forests. Annual apparent survival for red wolves and hybrids was greater than survival for coyotes; however, wolves and hybrids exhibited similar annual survival. Mortality of coyotes and hybrids was predominately attributed to deliberate take through lethal control by the USFWS biologists and harvest by hunters and trappers. We observed annual densities of coyotes ranging between 2.5 and 21.5 coyotes/1000 km2, with densities annually increasing during 2005–2013 when the red wolf population plateaued before declining after 2013. Despite the increase in coyote density, our density estimates are less than most estimates reported throughout the coyote's geographic range, and similar to those reported in areas where coyote populations are limited by extreme environments such as their northern range limits in Alaska, United States, and Canada. Our findings indicate that red wolf presence and federal management of coyotes using fertility control may have limited coyote densities in northeastern North Carolina.

Blood trail of expansion? Long‐term patterns of livestock depredation by wolves in Poland

AbstractAs the wolf Canis lupus populations continue to recover across Europe, livestock depredation becomes increasingly challenging for their effective conservation. We aim to (1) analyze the spatiotemporal variation in wolf attacks on livestock in relation to the landscape structure, livestock species, and the phase of wolf expansion in Poland and (2) discuss the implications for conservation and management in an expanding, protected wolf population. From 2008 to 2018, farmers reported 5499 attacks on livestock with 13,164 killed individuals, and the number of attacks increased 2.7‐fold at the country scale. Sheep were among the most frequently killed livestock, and surplus killing (>2 killed individuals) was relatively common in captive deer and sheep depredation. The attacks were patchily distributed; 59% of all kills occurred in municipalities constituting 1% of the country surface. The probability and number of attacks were positively influenced by forest and pasture cover, and by the occurrence of depredation in previous years. Spatial variation and long‐term dynamics in livestock depredation by wolves can be attributed to different husbandry practices and phases of wolf recovery in three regions of the country. Our results indicate that accelerating increase in depredation rates during the initial phases of wolf recovery is likely to be followed by stabilization or decrease in attacks. A detailed spatiotemporal analysis of wolf–livestock conflict can help in management decisions in areas with ongoing wolf population recovery.

Ranchers' Perspectives on Participating in Non-lethal Wolf-Livestock Coexistence Strategies

Potential impacts to rural livelihoods by large carnivores, such as gray wolves (Canis lupus), increase economic liability and fear among residents, resulting in social conflicts over wildlife issues. Strategies have been developed to promote non-lethal predator management in rural communities, but there is limited understanding of why ranchers choose to participate in such programs. We conducted semi-structured interviews (n= 45) of ranchers in Washington state, United States, asking open-ended questions to explore their perspectives on conflict mitigation. Interviews were analyzed using Grounded Theory. Ranchers mentioned five broad types of mitigation strategies: state agency intervention (i.e., calling the state agency in charge of wolf management to request either compensation or lethal wolf removal), biological measures (e.g., use of guard animals), physical measures (e.g., fences), human interference (cowboys and cowgirls), and indirect measures (e.g., husbandry practices). Motivations for participating in non-lethal mitigation strategies included previous positive interactions with wildlife agency officials, an understanding of the importance of wolves to the ecosystem, and clearly outlined guidelines on how to deal with wolf interactions. Barriers that hindered rancher participation included disdain for regulation both regarding the Endangered Species Act and the state's requirements for accessing damage compensation, which were perceived to be extensive and over-reaching. Negative attitudes toward wolf recovery included fear of wolves and perceived damage that wolves inflict on rural lives and livelihoods. Ranchers' motivations and perceived barriers for participating in mitigation strategies included sociopolitical and economic factors. Thus, we suggest that in addition to mitigating economic loss, wildlife managers address the intangible social costs that deter ranchers' participation in mitigation strategies through continued dialogue.

Majority positive attitudes cannot protect red wolves (Canis rufus) from a minority willing to kill illegally

In January 2021, there were 7 known individual red wolves (Canis rufus) remaining in the only wild population, located in Northeastern North Carolina (NENC). Anthropogenic mortality is the largest threat to survival of this population. Leading theory predicts that by understanding the attitudes and behavioral inclinations of the general public toward red wolves, better decisions can be made about how and where to concentrate outreach and interventions. Another view is that a very small minority of individuals must refrain from killing endangered species before restoration can succeed, so research and interventions need to focus on those few. We conducted interviews and surveys in nine counties in and around the NENC reintroduction area to measure attitude and behavioral inclinations toward red wolves, acceptance of the red wolf recovery program, and trust in the lead agency. We used two sampling techniques and in both samples pluralities or majorities liked red wolves, supported their restoration, disliked policy that would limit red wolf protections, trusted the agency, and would not kill a wolf illegally. While these data seem favorable for red wolf recovery, our results show a small group of people are driving the species to extinction through poaching. Self-identified male hunters in the probability group reported the greatest inclination to poach, with 11% saying they would kill any wolf they encountered on their own. We recommend engaging peer processes that discourage illegal behaviors and focusing energetic anti-poaching interventions on hostile actors to restore red wolves in this human dominated landscape.

Broadening the toolset for stakeholder engagement to explore consensus over wolf management

Facilitating coexistence between people and large carnivores is critical for large carnivore conservation in human-dominated landscapes, when their presence impacts negatively on human interests. Such situations will often require novel ways of mediating between different values, worldviews and opinions about how carnivores should be managed. We report on such a process in an agricultural area of recent wolf recovery in central Italy where unsolved social tensions over wolf presence have radicalized opinions on either side of the wolf debate, resulting in a stalemate. Where previous mitigation policies based on top-down damage compensation have failed, we tested the potential for applying a participatory approach to engage different stakeholder groups in a dialogue aimed at sharing a deep understanding of the problem and co-creating potential solutions. We based our approach on the theory of meta-consensus, using a decision support tool known as Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA). Over the course of three months, we carried out five workshops with stakeholder representatives from farming, hunting and environmental associations, and one biologist. Stakeholders shared several objectives and agreed over many management interventions, including the management of free-ranging dogs, the implementation of damage prevention measures, and a damage compensation system suitable for farmers. The process facilitated agreement over actions aimed at improving relations between stakeholders and enhancing the state of knowledge on the issues at stake. Most importantly, we recorded positive social and relationship outcomes from the workshops, and observed a willingness from participants to engage in further discussions over disputed management preferences. Overall, we found MCDA to be a useful tool for laying the groundwork for further participatory and deliberative processes on wolf management. However, challenges ahead included the involvement of a larger number of representatives of different social sectors, and a simplification of the methodology which some participants found too complicated and time consuming.

THE RED WOLF (CANIS RUFUS) IN EAST TEXAS

Wildlife biologists believe the red wolf (Canis rufus) is limited in the wild to the Red Wolf Recovery Experimental Population Area on the Albemarle Peninsula, North Carolina. Several black-and-white photos from trail cameras placed on the Environmental Studies Area of East Texas Baptist University in Marshall, Texas, indicate the presence of a large canid possessing wolf-like characters. Two pictures, in particular, indicate the wolf-like characters with estimated morphometrics at the upper range reported for body length, shoulder height, width of head, and width of nose pad. Hair samples and tracks from this location indicate the presence of Canis rufus in east Texas.

Conservation reliance and its influence on support for carnivore recovery

AbstractThe number of species reliant on consistent human intervention is rising. These species are labeled conservation‐reliant, which affords them unique resources to propagate them. A conservation reliance designation has important implications for recovery of large carnivores, particularly where private lands encompass historical ranges. As a policy tool, a conservation reliance designation may be used in conjunction with other popular instruments such as financial incentives or co‐governance to promote coexistence between carnivores and key cohorts such as landowners and hunters, who are often vocal dissidents of carnivore recovery, especially wolf recovery projects. Yet, the nascent literature on conservation reliance has yet to address the influence of conservation reliance on landowner or hunter support for carnivore conservation. This paper fills this gap with an analysis of responses from 639 landowners to explore the influence of a conservation reliance designation on intention to coexist with wild red wolves (Canis rufus) in northeast North Carolina. Findings suggest that respondents living in the red wolf recovery zone generally oppose a conservation reliance designation, a critical means to red wolf recovery. Hence, a conservation reliance designation may actually erode the value of some species they intend to preserve. Disapproval of conservation reliance poses new confronts to restoration politics and its diversity of strands, which must be woven into new ways of thinking about the ethical and political aspects of carnivore policy and management.

Prey partitioning between sympatric wild carnivores revealed by DNA metabarcoding: a case study on wolf (Canis lupus) and coyote (Canis latrans) in northeastern Washington

Accurate dietary inference of wild carnivores is essential to understand their impacts on the ecosystem and manage carnivore-livestock conflicts. Diet analysis with fecal DNA metabarcoding technology can help deliver valuable insights with fine-grained resolution. The recovery of wolves in Washington, USA offers an excellent opportunity to study the diet of this iconic carnivore species and explore prey partitioning between sympatric wolves and coyotes. We characterized the diet composition and spatiotemporal dietary variations in each species using fecal DNA metabarcoding technology on 202 fecal samples from wolves (N = 99) and coyotes (N = 103) collected across three wolf pack ranges and two seasons in northeastern Washington. We also quantified the diet niche overlap between these two canid species. In total, 19 different prey items were detected, with most assigned at the species level. Frequency of occurrence (FOO) data showed that wolves primarily preyed upon deer (Odocoileus sp.; 47.5%) and moose (Alces alces; 42.4%). Coyotes also consumed moose (30.1%) and deer (21.4%), but snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) were the most common prey (61.2%) in the coyote diet. Multiple samples were found to contain DNA from domestic animals, including pig, rabbit, and cow. Results on diet composition using FOO and relative read abundance were qualitatively similar, indicating a strong biological pattern. We found significant spatial variations in the wolf diet composition (p = 0.001) and significant spatio temporal variations in the coyote diet (pack range: p = 0.003; season: p = 0.023). Dietary overlap between these two canid species varied with pack ranges and seasons ( $$O$$ = 0.08–0.74). Our study demonstrates that fecal DNA metabarcoding is an efficient non-invasive tool to characterize high-resolution diet profiles of carnivores and monitor their dietary changes over space and time. Limitations of fecal DNA metabarcoding are also discussed.

Recolonizing wolves and opportunistic foxes: interference or facilitation?

AbstractThe mechanisms of interactions among carnivore species range from facilitation (mainly through increased availability of prey carcasses) to competition. We assessed the potential for facilitative/competitive interactions between the two most widespread carnivores in the world, the wolf and the red fox, in a prey-rich area recently recolonized by the apex predator. One could expect that the superior competitor would ecologically suppress the inferior one, leading to avoidance of the former by the latter. In a Mediterranean coastal area (2017–2018), we assessed spatiotemporal and dietary interspecific overlap and investigated whether the recovery of wolves affected food habits of foxes. Spatiotemporal overlap was extensive (0.84–0.89). Wild ungulates were the staple of the wolf diet (~88–90%); foxes used mainly invertebrates and fruits (~78%), with ungulates being a substantial food category (13% of diet; 66% of occurrences among vertebrate prey). Interspecific dietary overlap was low (0.23), but extensive (0.89) for vertebrate prey. In comparison to a preceding wolf-free period, the volume and occurrence of large mammals in the diet of foxes showed a 2.8- to 3.5-fold increase. Apparently, foxes did not avoid wolves, which provided additional food to the foxes as prey leftovers. In a rich community, the presence of wolves may increase the food spectrum of foxes. Temporal variation of facilitation vs. competition should be assessed in relationship to spatiotemporal changes of predator–prey numbers.

Resource selection at homesites by wolves and eastern coyotes in a Canis hybrid zone

AbstractWe modeled resource selection by wolves (Canis spp.), eastern coyotes (C. latrans), and admixed canids during the pup‐rearing season at den and rendezvous sites (collectively, homesites) within a largely unprotected landscape proposed as the recovery zone for federally and provincially threatened eastern wolves (C. lycaon) in Ontario, Canada. Overall, canids selected wetlands, while avoiding secondary roads and open‐structure rock‐grass habitat patches. Packs with greater wolf ancestry selected wetlands and tertiary roads more strongly, while avoiding mixed conifer‐hardwood forests. Contrary to our prediction, canids with greater coyote ancestry did not establish homesites closer to roads, which likely mitigated their risk of human‐caused mortality during pup‐rearing. Packs exhibited increased selection of wetlands within territories as a function of increasing availability of wetlands. Packs with abundant access to wetlands may prioritize this habitat type to exploit beavers, a valuable prey species during pup‐rearing. Packs with higher pup survival selected hardwood forests and avoided conifer forests more than packs with lower pup survival. This is consistent with our understanding of habitat relations of the main prey species for canids in central Ontario and suggests that selecting prey‐rich habitat types at homesites increases fitness. A proposed goal of eastern wolf recovery is numerical and geographical expansion outside of the population core in Algonquin Provincial Park. Thus, our results provide valuable information for conservation by quantifying resource selection of wolves, coyotes, and hybrids during pup‐rearing and identifying links between fitness and homesite selection.

What are the benefits of delisting endangered species and who receives them?: Lessons from the gray wolf recovery in Greater Yellowstone

This paper uses a spatial predator-prey model to provide insights into the complex and politically charged management of species recently removed from the federal endangered species list. The model is motivated by the recently delisted gray wolf with spatiotemporal dynamics between elk, wolves, hunters, cattle ranchers, and the tourism industry in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. State wildlife managers set hunting rates for elk and wolves to maximize the discounted net benefits from tourism, hunting, cattle grazing, and non-use values that accrue to the area while ensuring a minimum viable wolf population meant to prevent extinction. We show that the cost of wolf conservation paid by residents and visitors to the area falls substantially after delisting. These costs savings arise by taking advantage of differences in habitats and economies across the region resulting in an unequal spatial distribution of wolves and of wolf hunting opportunities. The cost savings from delisting are reduced when a more even distribution of wolves and hunting opportunity is achieved, highlighting a bioeconomic equity-efficiency tradeoff. Finally, we show that current livestock compensation programs cannot decrease the discrepancy between state and federal management following delisting but propose a federally-funded alternative that can.

Re-evaluation of the wolf population management units in central Europe

The wolf Canis lupus population occupying the lowlands of central Europe is divided into two management units: the Baltic population east of the Vistula river and the Central European population to the west. We re-evaluated arguments for this division in the context of the ongoing wolf recovery and its usefulness for wolf management in Poland. To do so, we 1) compared the recovery stage on each side of the Vistula, 2) investigated the history of wolf occurrence in western Poland after the eradication campaign of 1955–1975, 3) evaluated dispersal corridors, dispersal distances and genetic data for evidence of a possible isolation of the two alleged populations and 4) compared habitat characteristics in Poland on each side of the Vistula.The total area of forest occupied by wolves was 56 600 km2 in 2015 and grew by 5340 km2 until June 2017. Wolves in eastern Poland occurred in more areas than predicted by a habitat model, whereas wolves in the west have not yet recolonized all suitable habitats. Wolves have never been extinct west of the Vistula after the eradication campaign, but their recovery started only in the 1980s. Areas currently occupied by wolves on both sides of the Vistula are interconnected by dispersal corridors less than 100 km long, and population genetic studies show that wolves inhabiting the Polish lowlands constitute one genetic cluster. The wolf habitats west of the Vistula have a higher proportion of forests are less fragmented. We conclude that wolves inhabiting the lowlands on both sides of the Vistula river belong to the same population, have similar conservation status, and should be treated as the same management unit.